Introduction To The Szondi Test Theory And Practice

INTRODUCTION TO THE

SZONDI TEST

INTRODUCTION TO THE

SZONDI

TEST

THEORY AND PRACTICE

By SUSAN DERI

With a 'Foreword
By Dr. LIPOT SZONDI

GRUNE & STRATTON

NEW YORK 1949

Copyright, 1949

Grune Sc Stratton, Inc.
581 Fourth Avenue
New York City

Printed by Boyd Printing Co., Inc., Albany
Bound by Moore S: Co., Inc., Baiiimore
in Pyroxylin impregnated cloth, water-repellent and vcrminprcHjf

Contents

Foreword vii

Preface ix

CHAPTER I

Introduction i

CHAPTER II

Test Material and Technic of Administration 6

General Nature of the Test 6

Material and Administration 8

CHAPTER III

Experiment of Factorial Association 17

CHAPTER IV

Generai, Principles of Interpretation 25

Basic Meaning of the Factors 25

The Meaning of ^‘Loaded'' and “Open*' Reactions 26

The Four Modes of Choice Reactions 32

Interpretation of the Four Modes of Factorial

Reactions 34

SlGNUTCANCE OF CONSTANCY OR CHANGES IN THE

FaCIORIAL REAC/riONS 38

General Vectokiai. Gonfigurations 44

CHAPTER V

Formalized Analysis of a Series of Ten Profiles . . 47

CHAPTER VI

In rERPRETATioN OF 'niE Euarr Faciors 65

V

VI

CONTENTS

CHAPTER VII

The Sexual Vector 67

The A Factor 67

The s Factor 73

CHAPTER VIII

The Paroxysmal Vector 88

The e Factor 88

The hy Factor 97

P Vectorial Constellations 108

CHAPTER IX

The Contact Vector 118

The d Factor 119

The m Factor 131

C Vectorial Constellations 146

CHAPTER X

The Sch Vector and Stages of Ego Development

The p Factor

The A Factor

Sch Vectorial Consteluvtions

Stage I. Open k with minus p

Stage II. Plus k with minus p

Stage III. Plus-minus k with minus p

Stage IV. Minus k with minus p

Stage V. Minus k with open p

Stage VI. Minus k with plus p

CHAPTER XI

Syndromes and Case Illustrations 286

Author Index 339

General Index 340

167

170

186

209

210

215

221

224

232

238

Foreword

My student and former co-worker, Susan Deri, modestly
entitles her book Introduction. Its substance shows, how-
ever, that her work goes beyond a simple introduction. It is,
in three different respects, a definitely needed and splendidly
executed supplement to and elaboration of my book Expert-
mentelle Triebdiagnostik.

In the first place, Mrs. Deri has succeeded in presenting
the dynamic thought processes in the interpretation of the
test. Neither myself nor any of my collaborators had been
able to do so.

Secondly, the author supplements the Triebdiagnostik
with a complete and living presentation of the eight factors
of my drive system.

When Mrs. Deri visited me in Zurich recently and read
to me from her manuscript the chapters on the drive factors,
I saw clearly what I myself omitted in my book.

From the very first minute of the birth of the drive system
to the final unfolding of the drive diagnosis, Mrs. Deri par-
ticipated personally in all my worries and elations. She knew
the tribulations of research until finally and laboriously the
right way was found. Only because of this personal experi-
ence could Mrs. Deri understand the eight drive factors so
deeply. She assimilated the concept, as though the eight
factors were in reality eight living beings to whom she is
eternally bound in friendship.

In the third place, she took upon herself the important task
of making American psychologists understand the fundamen-
tally different aspect of European Seelenkunde. We Euro-
peans still pursue an “epic” form of psychology of a kind
that we learned from Dostoevski and Freud. The story of
the soul of man to us is still a heroic novel that we like to tell

vii

FOREWORD

viii

unhurriedly in long sentences. This epic form of presenta-
tion is inadequate to the American tempo of thinking.
Therefore, a book like Mrs. Deri’s appears to me indispen-
sable for bridging these differences in scientific thinking and
presentation.

Psychologists in America who work toward a new concep-
tion of psychologic depth diagnosis will, I hope, value and
benefit from the sincerity of these scientific efforts and the
extraordinary facility of a bom teacher.

L. SZONDI

Preface

This book is the outgrowth of almost eleven years of
clinical experience with and teaching of the Szondi test.
This time span actually coincides with the life span of the
test. Having worked intensively with the originator of
the method for four years, which included the very first
attempts to use this test as a method of personality investi-
gation, necessarily resulted in a strong subjective identifica-
tion with the test, a personal concern about every step in
its development and in regard to its reception by psycholo-
gists and psychiatrists.

Most probably it was just this concern which kept me
from writing a ‘'manuaP' for this test sooner. I knew that
the rationale for this method is much more involved and
more difficult to prove — ^with the exception of proving it
pragmatically by the use of the test — than it is for any of
the other projective technics. I also knew, or rather I have
noticed gradually, that the general interest in this method,
as one of the new projective technics, is increasing rapidly,
almost at a rate which alarmed me because I knew how
easily this test can be misused in the hands of persons
not adequately trained in its use, and that the misuse can
harm the further development of the method, as well as
those individuals who serve as subjects for misinterpreta-
tion. However, since there was practically no literature
in English on the Szondi method, and the picture set became
available commercially, there was no way to stop those who
felt like experimenting or playing with the pictures. The
fact that the stimulus pictures are labeled with the initials
of well-known diagnostic entities only enhanced the impres-
sion that this is a test which can be used rather easily because
the interpretation in terms of the diagnostic categories is
practically self-evident.

X

PREFACE

In actuality, however, the fact that the photographs of
the test represent psychiatric patients with well-known diag-
noses, is exactly what makes interpretation, and the formu-
lation of satisfactory rationales for interpretation, so diffi-
cult. The problem is how to account for the fact that we
use various psychiatric categories as a “measuring stick” for
“normal” or “abnormal” psychologic characteristics alike.
The attempt to formulate such a coherent framework of psy-
chologic rationales which would give a theoretical basis to
our pragmatic knowledge of interpretation was the purpose
which spurred me in the writing of this book. I have tried
to present the dynamic thought-processes implied in inter-
pretation, pointing out the complexities and the manifold
meaning of any single factorial constellation depending on
the positions of all the other factors, rather than to present
the interpretation in a simplified form. It is conceivable
that, after having read this introductory book, some psy-
chologists or psychiatrists will withdraw their interest from
the Szondi test following their recognition that instead of
its being a “streamlined” new instrument which can be
administered in a few minutes and interpreted in an addi-
tional few minutes, it is a time-consuming method which
has to be administered at least six times to the same subject,
and which requires a lengthy process of interpretation. I
have been asked whether the Szondi test is a “really” scien-
tific instrument which determines mental traits with the
same ease and exactness as the amount of hemoglobin can
be determined in a blood analysis, and not the same kind
of “worthless and vague instrument as the Rorschach and
psychoanalysis.” The answer in this book will be found
in the form of a definite “no.” This means, of course, that
anybody who finds the Rorschach and psychoanalysis “worth-
less and vague” also will be dissatisfied with the Szondi
test, and for his own sake as well as for the sake of the

PREFACE

XI

test, it might be more advantageous i£ he turns his interest
to other fields than projective technics.

How ever, that does not mean that I am not aware ^ of
the shortcomings of this introductory book as well as, to
sOTae extent, of the present state of our knowledge of the
test, in regard to the lack of rigorous quantitative validating ^
data. Were it not for the pressing circumstances mentioned
above, I would have preferred delaying to write a com-
prehensive book on this method until I had secured more
strictly quantitative data with “up-to-date” statistical treat-
ment of them to support my statements. As it is, the accept-
ance of practically any of my statements about the meaning
of the various factorial constellations is left to the good-will
of the reader. I have to trust, just as I have to trust at the
outset of my beginners’ course, that the inner consistency
of the reasoning involved in interpretation will help to
keep the reader’s or the learner’s judgment suspended until
he can convince himself about the clinical validity of the
statements by the actual use of the test. If interest can
be held up to this point, then I am rather optimistic because
the coincidence of students’ interpretations with independ-
ent clinical evidence is a constant source of validation for,
mjselj^as well as for the students. Also the fact that those i
who spent sufficient time with the studying of this method 1
always find it one of their most useful diagnostic tools,
and remark on the increasing demands for “Szondi reports”
after having sent the first ones to clinicians or psychiatrists,
can be regarded as a validation although it cannot be
reported in quantitative terms. I am fully aware of the
autistic nature of this reasoning since actually in this man-
ner I am the only one who received the accumulative evi-
dence of all these individual clinical validations. Yet these
experiences were of great importance to me because they
proved that the theory of the test interpretation has reached

PREFACE

xii

that stage in development at which it can be taught suc-
cessfully without much difficulty to any advanced student
in clinical psychology ox psychiatry, requiring only a basic
knowledge in these fields, some actual experience with
patients and a general “feeling” for projective technics. Six
or more years ago I would not have been able to enumerate
the various background and personality qualifications which
were thought necessary for learning the test in the form
of a course in contrast to the way we, the immediate stu-
dents and co-workers of Szondi, have learned it by growing
up with the test and learning from Szondi by daily long
discussions of every single test we made in the psychologic
laboratory and out-patient clinic of which he was the head.
In the course of this continuous and gradual learning proc-
ess, much has been observed empirically for which the
conceptual explanation was still lacking and therefore could
not be transmitted by means of more formalized teaching.

The successful clinical work of those psychologists who
have learned this method more recently has encouraged me
to organize my usual course material in the present book
form, and I can only hope that it will serve its purpose
by giving the basic knowledge for interpretation and thereby
helping those who plan to do actual work with this test.
The presentation of the numerical data, even those which
are available, is completely omitted, partly because it
can be found in the appendix of Szondi’s book (Expert-
mentelle Triebdiagnostik) partly because the data are not
treated with the statistical methods generally used in this
country. However, the trends of the frequency distribu-
tions in regard to various age and clinical groups are ahvays
mentioned and, if possible, accompanied by hints in regard
to the underlying psychodynamic process which might
account for the particularly high or low frequency of a
given constellation in a certain group of subjects. The
temptation to elaborate on possible hypotheses of psycho-

PREFACE

Xlll

dynamic explanations was great, yet I tried to limit myself
to what I thought was absolutely necessary for the sake
of making the empirical findings psychologically meaningful
and also for the sake of stimulating further research which
will throw more light on these basic problems of psycho-
dynamics. I also wanted to illustrate what — to my mind —
is the most specific and the most interesting potentiality
of the Szondi test, namely its use for the purpose of making
visible the hidden dynamic processes which lie behind the
generally used one-word diagnostic labelings.

What I mostly hope is that this introductory book will
at least point out a number of possible avenues for more
specific research studies and can serve as a guide in inter-
pretation, and also help to differentiate between the ade-
quate methods of handling such complex data and those
which are not appropriate for handling the data of this
method.

To express any form of thanks to the person who origi-
nated the test, and without whose teachings I would have
never been able to learn the interpretation of a profile,
seems rather out of place. Also I feel that no conven-
tional form of expressing gratitude could do justice to my
actual indebtedness for the absolutely untiring and unlimited
efforts, enthusiasm and time Szondi has spent for years in
explaining and discussing his ideas with the few of us who
were fortunate enough to work under his personal super-
vision. The unique atmosphere of enthusiastic work, this
closely-knit group of co-workers around Szondi, which due
to Szondi’s personal inspiration and to the common interest
of all of us, continued almost fanatically for years during
which we forgot the existence of official working or office
hours and argued theoretical or practical points until late
in the night or even early morning, can not be described
to anybody who has not experienced it personally.

In organizing my material, I was helped by several psy-

XIV

PREFACE

chologists who were kind enough to let me use the notes
they wrote on the basis of my courses. In the first place
I want to express my thanks to the “Chicago group” whose
mimeographed notes were the most extensive and who were
the first in this country to organize a regular weekly “Szondi
Seminar,” under the direction of Mrs. Ruth L. Bromberg,
for all those psychologists who were already trained in
the use of the test. Ruth L. Bromberg, Dr. Hedda Bolgar,
Dr. Ann Elonen, Dr. Erika Fromm, Dr. Mary Grier-Jacques,
Harriette Moore and Elleva Patten have worked most on
the collective organization of their Szondi notes, which
resulted in a most useful fourteen page syllabus. Later I
was helped by the notes of Mr. Stanley Friedman, Mr. Jerome
Himmelchoch and Mrs. Nina Diamond-Fieldstiel, for which
I want to thank them here.

Mr. Henry Stratton I want to thank for his ready encour-
agement, and Mr. David Spengler for his understanding
effort in editing my manuscript.

Susan Deri

Chapter I

Introduction

MORE THAN ten years ago. Dr. Lipot Szondi, Hungarian
psychiatrist, constructed a picture test, consisting of photo-
graphs of mental patients. The original purpose of this test
was to prove experimentally his theory about the role of
latent recessive genes in influencing our psychologic reac-
tions. According to his theory, the mental disorders repre-
sented in the test are of genetic origin and the subject’s
emotional reactions to these photographs were believed to
depend upon some sort of similarity between the gene-
structure of the patient represented by the photograph and
that of the subject reacting to the photograph. The subject
was asked to choose those pictures he liked most and those
he disliked most. The validating data in regard to the
genetic origin of the choices were expected from the subject’s
family tree.

Detailed presentation and critical evaluation of the theory
will not be found in this guidebook. For this material the
reader is referred to Szondi’s books: Schicksalsanalyse * and
Experimentelle T riebdiagnostik.'f Schicksalsanalyse, espe-
cially, gives a most detailed presentation of Szondi’s theory
in regard to the psychologic function of the latent recessive
genes, with a great number of concrete genealogic examples
and family trees.

In his second work, Szondi describes his test as an experi-
mental method for revealing the psychologic effects of the
latent genes as they direct us in our spontaneous choice
reactions.

* Szondi, L.: Schicksalsanalyse. Basel, Benno Schwabe, 1948.

f Triebdiagnostik. Bern, Hans Huber, 1947.

8

SZONDI TEST

Irrespective of whether or not one accepts Szondi s gene-
theory, and whether or not one can agree with him in
considering his test as being the proper methodology for
proving or disproving this theory, tl^ test has proved itself
empirically to be one of the most useful projective technics.

It is solely from this point of view that the present manual
has been written. In the following chapters, the test will be
described as a projective technic and the basic processes of
interpretation will be discussed from a purely psychologic
point of view. It was this attempt to construct a consistent
and purely psychologic set of rationales for interpretation
which made me decide to write this manual, which is intended
to supplement, and not to replace, the reading of Experi-
mentelle Triebdiagnostik.

Having had the privilege of working with Dr. Szondi,
first as his student, later as his co-worker, from the beginning
of his experimentations with the test, I was in the fortunate
position of being able to assimilate his way of thinking in
the years when no day could pass without intensive discus-
sions about general and specific problems of interpretation.
Only Szondi’s unparalleled enthusiasm was able to hold
together without the least formal organization a group of
almost equally enthusiastic co-workers and students for all
of whom “the test” was the most vitally important problem
in all those years, the end of which was marked by the out-
break of World War II. The war caused the disruption of
the group, and soon after I arrived in this country in 1941,
there were no more means to communicate with Dr. Szondi
in regard to further developments of the test. During these
years he has worked in the direction of establishing new,
more formalized ways of interpretation, his gene-theory still
holding its central position. All tliese more recent develop-
ments in formal methods of interpretation are contained in
Szondi 's Experimentelle Triebdiagnostik.

During the same years my thinking about the test devel-
oped more and more in the direction of considering it one

INTRODUCTION

3

of the projective technics. The extent to which the prin-
ciples usually underlying projective technics apply to the
Szondi test will be discussed later. My object in writing this
book is to construct and present a series of psychologic
assumptions from which the interpretation of the test pro-
files can be derived. Emphasis is on the attempt to make
verbally explicit the basic psychologic assumptions implicit
in the interpretation of the single test factors. This work
of interpolating certain links in the process of psychologic
interpretation had to be done in order to fill out the gap
existing between the original stimulus situation of looking
at certain photographs and the final step of interpreting the
personality, which many times was based on pragmatic
knowledge. Without trying to fill out this gap, and to
retrace our interpretative statements step by step to their
origin in the actual stimulus material, much of the inter-
pretation may sound purely intuitive and mystical. Actually
my experience in teaching this method has convinced me —
more than I was before — that this is not the case. I would
not say that there are not certain personality types who have
more spontaneous understanding and ‘‘feeling’' for inter-
pretation than others, but some basic aspects of interpreta-
tion can be definitely taught to any advanced student of
clinical psychology or psychiatry. The ability to interpret
finer nuances, and to perceive the interdependence of com-
plicated configurations in the test profiles, will always depend
upon the general psychiatric knowledge of the interpreter.
Psychoanalysts or psychologists with broad background of
psychoanalytic knowledge, find it — according to my experi-
ence — easiest to familiarize themselves with the way of
thinking necessary for “depth”-interpretation.

In my attempt to describe the basic psychologic processes
involved in interpretation, I am going to use, besides Szondi’s
own theoretic concepts concerning the basic personality struc-
ture, many explanatory concepts borrowed from Freudian
psychoanalysis and Lewin's vector-psychology. I found

4

SZONDI TEST

the genetically noncommittal yet dynamic concepts of the
Lewinian theory of personality organization extremely help-
ful in describing certain assumptions underlying the func-
tioning of the Szondi test. My conceptual thinking about
the test has been greatly influenced by two years of research
work with Dr. Kurt Lewin in this country, not so much in
specific discussions with him about the test, as in the general
“conceptual atmosphere” around him and his co-workers
which helped me to see certain problems in connection with
the test from a new angle. On the other hand, besides
getting better acquainted with certain psychologic theories,
I also recognized more than before the agreement or rela-
tionship between the results of some experiments and tests,
other than the Szondi test, and conclusions reached on the
basis of the Szondi test. This manual is the result of all these
experiences briefly mentioned above and slowly taking the
shape of a more or less integrated whole during the course
of teaching this method at various schools.

There is necessarily some overlap in the material of this
book and Szondi’s Experimentelle Triebdiagnostik^ although
I tried to keep this overlap at a minimum. As I said before,
my goal was to make the Szondi method more comprehensible
for psychologists who prefer a purely psychologic frame of
reference for interpretation. Accordingly, the main differ-
ences between Szondi’s book and my manual will be the
following:

1 . As mentioned above, the theory about the genetic
origin of instincts and the role the latent recessive genes
are supposed to play in our reaction to the stimulus material
of the test, is presented only in Szondi’s book.

2. Szondi centers his reasoning in interpretation around
his more recently developed formalized categories. This
method will be only touched upon in my manual; the respec-
tive tables can be found in Szondi’s book.

INTRODUCTION

6

3. As a general principle, I am going to present the quali-
tative way of thinking underlying the interpretation and
then mention the trends characteristic for various groups of
subjects, without using the numerical data contained in the
appendix of Szondi’s book.

4. Finally, I am going to include several examples of indi-
vidual case interpretations.

Chapter II

Test Material and Technic of
Administration

1. General Nature of the Test

BEFORE going into the description of the test material
and technic of administration, something general ought to
be said about the test, such as What aspect of the per-
sonality does the test intend to ‘‘measure’? What are its
fields of application? How does it compare with other
projective technics?

In spite of being aware of the fact that logically one could
expect to have these general questions answered before the
presentation of specific technical details, I am going to post-
pone the detailed discussion of these problems until more
has been said about the test. Out of this order of presenta-
tion — from the more specific to the general — answers to
many questions will emerge naturally from the discussion,
while references to aspects of the test not yet discussed will
be avoided.

A most general idea in regard to what the test intends to
reveal is indicated by the name “projective technic.” Today,
when there is such a rapid increase of interest in this type
of personality investigation, it seems almost redundant to
repeat the goal which is common to all of these methods.
It is known that the purpose of all the projective technics
is to establish a testing situation where, due to the ambiguity
of the stimulus material and the general nature of the instruc-
tions, the subject is enabled to express his “private world,”
without knowing what he really reveals. What the exact
content of this “private world” is would 1^"=^ ^■‘^^rd — if not

6

TEST MATERIAL AND TECHNIC OF ADMINISTRATION 7

impossible — to define, but we know that, depending on the
specific nature of the stimulus material, it varies somewhat
in its meaning. As an attempt to bridge over this embar-
rassing conceptual uncertainty, a number of rather vague
and all-inclusive concepts were developed in the recent litera-
ture about projective technics. The most frequently used
concepts to denote the object the various projective technics
reveal are, besides “the subject’s private world,” “basic per-
sonality structure” or “dynamic aspects of personality.”
Actually — even though vague — these expressions are quite
adequate to emphasize the tendency that all these methods
aim at reflecting the personality as a complex organism not
divisible into separately functioning faculties or traits. These
concepts also reflect our present state of knowledge — or
rather our lack of exact knowledge — in regard to what per-
sonality really is. The fact that by now we know what it
is not — that it is not the conglomeration of separate, well
defined “traits” which can be independently measured on
strictly quantitative scales — ^marks the most important step
in the development of “human” psychology. In the realm
of testing, the projective technics are the only instruments
doing justice to this holistic and dynamic conception of
personality.

In the light of these considerations, we can say that the
purpose of the Szondi test is to reflect the personality as a
functioning, dynamic whole. More specifically, it conceives
ofjhe personalit y as consisting of a nuraber of need-systems
(or drives) and reflects the ^juantimiye disdribution of ten-
sion in these specifi^^ need^systems _pjus the way the person
handles thSe^ meed-tensions. Its field of application is again
similar to that of other projective technics; in other words,
as a diagnostic instrument for clinical use or for the inter-
pretation of the so-called normal personality, vocational
guidance, experimental social psychology and a variety of
fields of research. Because the Szondi test — more than any

8

SZONDI TEST

of the other projective technics reflects the personality as a
dynamic process undergoing constant fluctuations through
the accumulation and discharge of the various need-tensions,
‘the test is particularly apt to follow up and make visible
certain psychodynamic changes, such as tlie psychologic
changes during a paroxysmal cycle of epilepsy, or the effects
of various therapeutic procedures. A comparison of the
Szondi test with other projective technics cannot be drawn
at all before more about this test has been said.

2. Material and Administration

The test material consists of 48 photographs, 2 by 3 inches
in size. Each photograph represents the face of a mental
patient. The pictures are divided into six sets, each con-
taining eight photographs. Each set contains the picture
of a homosexual, a sadist, an epileptic, an hysteric, a catatonic
schizophrenic, a paranoid schizophrenic, a manic-depressive
depressive and a manic-depressive manic. Thus, in the total
test each disease entity is represented by six pictures.

On the back of each card there is a Roman numeral, indi-
cating the series number, an Arabic numeral indicating the
rank number of the picture within the series, and an initial
for indicating the specific type of mental disorder represented
by the photograph.

The series, each containing eight pictures, are presented
to the subject consecutively, the cards of each series layed out
in front of the subject in two lines of four pictures, so that
the Arabic numerals 1 and 8 are in a vertical line.* In order
to save the cards from getting soiled, several psychologists
working with the Szondi test suggested that the photographs
be covered with cellophane. This is not advisable because
the insertion of cellophane between the photographs and
the subject might result in some distortion of the visual
effect, due to the reflection caused by the shiny surface.

The subject’s task is to choose from each series the two

TEST MATERIAL AND TECHNIC OF ADMINISTRATION 9

pictures he likes most and the two he dislikes most. It is
impossible to give the exact wording of the instructions,
since in administering a projective technic one always has
to allow for some individual variations as the case might
require. Nevertheless, some suggestions in regard to verbal
directions can be given. As an introduction the examiner
might say, “I am going to show you some pictures of various
people, and all you have to do is to tell me which are the
ones you like most and which are the ones you dislike most
(or like the least). Of course there are no right or wrong
choices, since liking or disliking any of these faces is com-
pletely a matter of individual taste.”

After this introduction the examiner lays out the first series
of eight pictures in the order indicated above. After all the
eight pictures are layed out the subject is told, “Now look
at all these faces and pick out first the two you like most
and then the two you dislike most. Don’t think long, just
do it spontaneously (or quickly), you don’t have to give any
reason for your choice.” Exact timing of the choices is not
usually done, except for some specific research purpose, but
if the case requires, the subject is prompted several times
to choose the pictures without hesitation and without much
delay. The subject is not allowed to change the order of
the pictures or to pick up any one of them to hold it closer
to his eyes. In other words, the order of the pictures, once
layed out on the table, should never be changed. After
verbal directions have been given, some subjects start out
asking an array of questions in regard to “what do you mean
by liking or disliking?” (This is particularly true for intel-
lectuals, especially psychologists.) These questions should
not be taken too seriously, and by no means should the
examiner give in to the temptation of starting lengthy philo-
sophical or psychological arguments about the concepts of
“liking” or “disliking” in general. Any such attempt on
the part of the subject has to be interpreted (but not verbally)

lO

SZONDI TEST

as resistance, taking the form of escaping into intellectualiza-
tion. The test profiles of such subjects usually reveal com-
pulsive features. In case tire subject asks for more precise
qualifications of the directions, or contends that all the pic-
tures look so “horrible” that he cannot possibly like any
of them, or that they all look like “good” people and he
cannot dislike any of them, the examiner has to reword in
a noncommittal way his original instructions. In such cases
I usually get satisfactory results by saying that “imagine that
you are closed in a room with these eight people and nobody
else, who are the two you would like to sit next to you
for a chat? Who are the two you would like the least to sit
close to you?” According to my experience, more directions
are not needed, unless one is forced to repeat the same
direction in a diflEerent tone of voice, with increasingly
obvious indications that we expect to get through the whole
procedure quickly. Usually these variations are not needed
at all, and most subjects pick out liked and disliked pictures
without much difficulty, even though they often make dis-
paraging remarks about the “silliness” of such a test. Most
of the difficulties are encountered in compulsive neurotics,
and in cases of psychotic depression, especially if there is a
strong paranoid component. These are the subjects who
do not want to “judge” anybody by face, or who feel that
all people are “basically good.” The ways of relieving such
guilt feelings have to be left to the ingenuity of every well
trained examiner. However, the fact that the examiner
has to be well trained is important. The administration of
the test should never be left to psychologically untrained
personnel; neither should the test material be handed to
the subject for the purpose of self-administration. This
point has to be stressed because the apparent simplicity of
the administration is misleading, and I was surprised to hear
that even well trained psychologists sometimes resorted to
the above methods. As a matter of fact it would not be an

TEST MATERIAL AND TECHNIC OF ADMINISTRATION 1 1

easy task to give a logical explanation why self-administering
the test, in case of intelligent subjects, should not work;
still there are indications that the presence or absence of an
examiner does influence the results to some extent. There
are no systematic experimental results to throw more light
on this question; however, I base my hunch in this respect
on several individual test profile series which I was able to
single out from a number of series because of the unusual
types of changes occurring from one testing to the other.
These “atypical** series, in which cases the usual interpreta-
tion of sudden changes did not seem to coincide with the
actual personality description, were all self-administered.
These rather accidental observations suggest that the more
systematic exploration of the role of the examiner would be
desirable. One conceivable theory would be that the pres-
ence of another person effects in some way yet unknown the
mechanisms of control in reinforcing the function of the
superego. Whether or not the self-administered profiles give
a “truer** picture of the personality cannot be decided yet,
but what we know is that our present empirical knowledge
of interpretation has been based on thousands of test profiles
not self-administered.

Now that we have discussed the difficulties one might
encounter in connection with giving the directions to the
subject, let us proceed to the description of the administra-
tion proper. After the subject has chosen the two pictures
he likes most, we place them on the table in front of us,
with the photograph side up, so that the subject cannot see
the initials on the back. After the subject has handed us
the two he dislikes most, we start to pile them up next to the
liked ones, again picture side up. The remaining four
pictures are put back to the corresponding box of the case.
The same procedure is repeated with all the six series; thus
finally we have two piles of pictures in front of us, one con-
taining the twelve most liked, the other one the twelve most

18

SZONDI TEST

disliked. The next step is to lay out in front of the subject
the twelve likes and ask him to choose the four he likes the
most. The instruction is usually: “Now I am going to show
you again the twelve pictures you liked most, and now pick
out in order the four you like most among these.” The
twelve pictures are lined up in three rows of four in each.
The same “final choice” procedure is repeated with the
twelve dislikes, with the instruction of choosing now the four
most disliked ones. After having finished the administration
of the test, the examiner should immediately record the
choice-reactions on the scoring sheet. On tlie upper half of
the scoring sheet the choices are recorded graphically in the
form of a test profile.

On the test profile the eight vertical columns headed by
the small initials, stand for the eight diseases represented
in the test. These eight categories will be referred to from
now on as the eight factors, (h = homosexual, s = sadistic,
e = epileptic, hy = hysteric, k = catatonic, p = paranoid,
d = depressive, m= manic.) Each square above the zero-line
stands for a like choice in this particular factor, and each
square below the zero-line represents a dislike choice. In
each factor we mark the number of like choices by filling in
the appropriate number of squares above tlie zero-line with
red pencil (shown in our profiles here by shaded squares)
and the dislikes by filling in the appropriate number of
squares under the zero-line with blue pencil (shown here by
solid black squares). Thus each profile after it has been
drawn out consists of i8 red and 12 blue squares. The final
choices of four most liked and four most disliked can be
drawn out either on the separate profile on the same scoring
sheet or else one can mark these final four and four choices
with heavy shading on the original test profile so that the
eight final choices stand out with their darker shading on the
background of the 24 original choices.

TEST MATERIAL AND TECHNIC OF ADMINISTRATION I3

Name: Alter: Beruf:

Szondl-Tesf

BlaH mit zwei Triebprofilen

i.

>•

1 .

II.

II.

1

1

!

III.

111.

1

IV.

!

IV.

1

D

1

1

1

D

i

VI.

1

1

VI.

Copyright 1947 by Verlog Hans Huber, Bern

Fig. 1. Test Profile Recording Forms

14

SZONDI TEST

The lower half of the scoring sheet allows space for mark-
ing down the 24 choices by their initials. The 12 likes are
recorded under the heading of sympathie and the 12 dislikes
under the heading antipathic. The Roman numerals on this
part of the scoring sheet indicate the number of the series
from I to VI, so that all we have to write down in the respec-
tive box is the initial indicated on the back of the picture.
The eight final choices are recorded by encircling the initials
of those pictures which were chosen in the ‘‘final” phase of
the testing. The rank order of the final choices should be
indicated by attaching small Arabic index numbers to the
encircled initials.

The examiner should never rely on the graphic representa-
tion of the test profile alone, without also marking down the
initials of the chosen pictures. The marking of the initials
should be carried out during the course of the test adminis-
tration, and the graphic representation of the test profile
should be based on the counting of the choices marked by
initials, and always carried out after the actual test adminis-
tration has been finished. This procedure should always be
followed not only as a checking device but also in order to
keep records of the specific pictures chosen in each series.
These data might be valuable for later research purposes in
regard to the significance of the succession of choices. Some-
thing is already known about the specific significance of the
first choices.

The administration of the test has to be repeated at least
six, preferably ten, times, with at least one day intervals
between administrations, to be able to give a valid clinical
interpretation of the personality. As a rule the one day,
as a minimum interval, should be kept, unless some specific
experience occurs (epileptic seizure, introduction of some
drug, hypnosis, etc.) in which case the interval can be
shortened.

Some experimentation with administering the test twice

TEST MATERIAL AND TECHNIC OF ADMINISTRATION I5

within a few hours is carried out at present by Molly nar-
rower, who gives the Szondi test at the beginning of a long
testing session, consisting of a number of projective technics
and an intelligence test, and again at the end of the session.
The results are not evaluated yet in regard to whether the
changes occurring from first to second testing under these
conditions can be interpreted according to principles fol-
lowed, when the interval between the two administrations
is at least a day. At any rate, the fact that there are changes
even within such a relatively very short period of time, points
to the necessity of investigating more the psychologic mean-
ing of these “short-range” changes. On the basis of my
very limited experience with such brief repetitions, I am
inclined to think that the dynamics underlying these changes
and those occurring after a longer interval are not identical.
One conceivable hypothesis is that the changes taking place
after a few hours are due to the immediate psychologic eCEect
of having been exposed to the same stimulus material an
hour or two earlier. Factors such as satiation, or some imme-
diate superficial release of tensions through the act of reacting
emotionally to the test material, might account for the
changes. Having been subjected to other projective tests
immediately before the second administration of the Szondi
test might affect the results in a similar way.

When we repeat the test, the instructions have to be some-
what modified. The purpose of this modification is to elimi-
nate the effect of memory. The subject has to understand
that the purpose of readministration of the test is not to
check on the consistency of his reactions; we have to make it
explicit that this is not a disguised memory test but that what
we are interested in is to see “how he feels today in regard
to these pictures.”

I usually introduce the second administration by saying
that “I am going to show you the same pictures you saw the
other day. Choose again the two you like most and the two

l6 SZONDI TEST

you dislike most of each series, but do not think that you
have to choose the same ones you did the other day. Some-
times when we are in a diflEerent mood we like a different
kind of person. So go ahead and pick out the ones you like
most and the ones you dislike most, and never mind if they
are the same or not as last time.”

Besides the type of scoring sheet reproduced above, another
type is available * (fig. 5), on which the examiner can
record a whole series of ten test profiles on one sheet. For
individual case interpretations it is advisable to use this type
of scoring sheet not only because of the ten test profiles but
also because it allows room for certain formal categorization
and computations on the basis of the ten profiles. (Directions
in regard to how to fill out this part of the scoring sheet will
follow in the discussion of methods of interpreting a series
of ten profiles.)

The scoring sheet with two profiles is used whenever we
know that we are not going to administer a complete series.
For various research purposes, where the single profiles are
considered only as members of a group, and the data are
used for statistical group analyses, the use of one or two
profiles for each subject is permissible.

• Published by Hans Huber, Bern, Switzerland; American distributor,
Grune and Stratton, New York City.

Chapter III

Experiment of Factorial
Association

BEFORE we discuss the basic principles of interpretation,
I want to mention an additional use of the Szondi test. This
is the so-called “factorial association experiment.” It con-
sists of asking the subject to tell us stories about the pictures
chosen in the “final test” as the four best liked and four
most disliked. Whether or not one is able to administer
this part of the experiment usually depends on the amount
of time at the examiner’s disposal. Whenever feasible, the
subject should be asked to associate freely to the eight pic-
tures chosen in the final test or — ideally — to all the 24 pic-
tures chosen in the main experiment. The associations thus
obtained are highly valuable not only because in this way
we gain verbally projected material useful for detailed per-
sonality interpretations, especially in cases where the dif-
ferential diagnosis between neurosis and prepsychosis or
psychosis is questionable, but also because the associations
allow us to gain insight into the specific ways in which the
stimulus material affects the subject. Experience has shown
that the pictures representative of the eigErdiaghostic cate-
gories included in the test elicit different kinds of associa-
tions. Associations given to pictures of the same factor have
usually something in common and in some way reflect the
special psychologic characteristics of the respective disease
category. A few examples are quoted here:

Subject: 46 years old, male; diagnosis: paranoid schizo-
phrenia; stimulus: picture V/^. “Young boy, about sixteen
to eighteen years old. Goes to school. He still is under his

17

l8 SZONDI TEST

parents’ care. Everybody likes him. When people get in
my age, then love is missing. Maybe he (the boy on the
picture) is in love, but i£ so I am sure he is in the beginning
stage.”

The same subject’s association to picture IVe. “An older
man, looks like to me sort of a professional man, intelli-
gent. Many things could be told about him. Sinister but
not rude. I am positive that he does not want to be rude.”
The same subject’s associations to picture Why. “Middle-
aged woman, sulking face. Maybe married but she is indif-
ferent to her family and neglects them. The half-closed eyes
also show that she does not want to see her family. She is
lacking sincerity; she is a hypocrite.” The same subject’s
association to picture Vm. “An older man, could be a busi-
nessman. He is married by all means and lives very happily
with his family. Probably he has a warmer family life than
people usually^ In spite of his smile his facial expression
also reflects some worry.”

The following are examples from the associations of a
catatonic schizophrenic patient who refused to take any other
test. Even though his verbal associations are scanty, they
reflect the specific character of the various factors which
served as stimuli: The subject was a 8i year old male patient
in a state hospital. Diagnosis: catatonic schizophrenia:

Association to TVh. “A college student. Not married.
Definitely not married. One can see on his face that he is
not married.” To picture Vis. “I don’t know him. He
could be a boxer. A serious person. Healthy. I am sure
this one wants to get married. He is in love. May be about
31 years old.” To picture Is. “Vicious looking, capable of
anything. A tramp, a deserter. He is hiding from the
police. A wrestler, an international wrestler.” lllhy. “He
is either Chinese or Japanese. Either a spy or a priest.”
Ylky. “A spy. Old and worried. Could be an Eskimo or
a Russian.” Vp. “This one has college education, for sure.”

EXPERIMENT OF FACTORIAL ASSOCIATION I9

Association to picture Illd. 'Toor working woman. Has
many j&nancial troubles. She is under the spell of the devil.
She had much grief and sorrow in her life. Otherwise she is
an industrious woman.*’

The following are a few examples from the associations of
a more or less well-functioning 53 year old woman (a woman
who never felt the need to get psychiatric help, which can be
taken as an operational definition of health). Vs. ‘'Could be
a German college professor but also could be a sportsman.
Maybe I only think of sportsman because of his muscles, if
dressed (on the picture one can see the face in profile and
the bare shoulder of a man) he could look like a professor,
a teacher, a pedagogue. 11 s. “This hair on his chest is dis-
gusting. Could be a surgeon.” Vis. “Oh, I didn’t like this
one. A villain, violent, brutal, uneducated, criminal. He
has an evil look. He might even knock somebody down, he
would rather do something physically violent than steal.”
IV^. “I liked this one. Could be a professor. Strictly intel-
lectual.” II^. “Seriously psychotic. Maybe he has delusions
and had to be institutionalized.” Vlhy. “This one reminds
me of a seamstress who used to work in our house. She was
an embittered old maid. This one isn’t normal either but
not institutionalized. She is frustrated, sad and bitter.”
Association to picture IVm. “This one is some kind of a
singer, not of the real good ones, though. For that she ought
to be prettier. She is some sort of a night club entertainer,
in a cheap night club.”

The last group of examples are taken from a well-
functioning college professor, a 58 year old man, a professor
of chemistry.

Vie. “This one looks like an idiot. I wouldn’t hire her
for the lowest kind of work. She is so stupid that she might
do anything unexpected, she even might kill in a sudden
outburst, though she is not schizophrenic.” Ik. “She is crazy.
I can imagine her just sitting and sitting and getting excited

20

SZONDI TEST

from time to time. She looks like a moron. I would be
afraid of her.** Illft. *lsn*t as scary as the other one. She is
not particularly evil, but quite stupid. In a city one cannot
see such persons. She lives in a village, caged in, never
getting together with people.** TVd. “Shrewd, calculating
and fanatic at the same time. Quite an unreliable person.*’

These examples were inserted here to illustrate- the types
of associations evoked by the pictures; however, their full
psychologic implication probably cannot be appreciated
until after the discussion of the interpretative meaning of
the single factors. A few interesting trends in the above
examples can be pointed out here. There were two associa-
tions to h pictures (V/z. and IV/z.) given by two different
subjects. One could express the common feature of the two
associations as the emphasis on the heterosexual immaturity
of the person represented on the photograph. (“Definitely
not married,** . . if in love definitely in the beginning
stage.**) According to our theory, it is just the emphasis on
the tender pregenital love as against the real goal-directed
heterosexual love which is characteristic of the h factor and
reactions to h pictures have to be interpreted according to
this theory. “Still under the care of the parents,” “every-
body likes him,” and the subject’s expression of longing for
this kind of love himself, are all in line with our above
interpretation of the h factor.

Five associations to four difEerent s pictures, given by
two different subjects, were quoted literally. The common
features in the associations were the stress on physical force,
and aggression. It is interesting that in these five short
examples practically a complete list of the various outlet
possibilities for aggression at different levels of sublimation
has been listed. In order, these were the following: “violent,
brutal . . . criminal,” “. . . might knock down somebody,”
“rather physical violence than stealing.” (\Ve always inter-
preted stealing as rather an h than an s type of crime.) Then

EXPERIMENT OF FACTORIAL ASSOCIATION 21

the first step in socializing physical aggression: ‘‘a wrestler,'

boxer,” “a sportsman.” Then the most sublimated forms
of aggression: “a teacher, a pedagogue, a German college
professor,” “a surgeon.”

The various possibilities in interpretation of the s factor
are exactly in line with these associations. There were two
associations to two different e pictures, given by two sub-
jects. The basic duality in regard to how to deal with aggres-
sive impulses — ^which according to our theory is underlying
the psychologic meaning of the e factor — is nicely reflected
in the two associations. The overemphasis on the aspect
of forced emotional control is reflected in ‘'sinister but not
rude,” and the additional insistence that “I am positive that
he does not want to be rude.” Similarly, the other e picture
(Vic) is perceived as “stupid” and calm at the moment but
potentially dangerous: “she might do anything unexpected
. . . even kill in a sudden outburst. . . .” This description
coincides exactly with our theory about the underlying
psychodynamics of an epileptic seizure.

Four associations to three different hy pictures, given by
three different subjects, were quoted above. The common
elements in these associations were the following: the faces
seen on the hy pictures were described as expressing some
sort of strange role-playing, or else they refer to some disturb-
ance in the sphere of emotional expressiveness; however,
not in regard to violent, aggressive emotions (as in the e
factor) but rather referring to the ability of expressing love-
object oriented emotions. Examples: “May be married but
indifferent to family and neglects them”; “does not want to
see her family”; “lacking sincerity”; “hypocrite”; “Chinese,”
“Japanese,” “Eskimo,” “Russian.” The latter associations
are most probably meant to indicate the impression of some
sort of unusual role. Similarly, the associations of “spy”
and “priest” are most probably expressions of the feeling
that the person is acting out or hiding behind various roles.

2% SZONDI TEST

The meaning of the hy factor will be described as indi-
cating the need for exhibitionistic activities which, depend-
ing on the subject’s attitude toward this need, can result
either in direct display of affection or in hiding the real
affection behind a role.

Two associations to two different k pictures were quoted
from the same subject. Both express the most important
psychologic characteristic of catatonic; namely, the lack of
emotional communication with the environment. This
quality of the catatonic schizophrenics forms also the central
core of the interpretation of the k factor. In the above
associations this quality is expressed by the description of
the person whose face is represented on the photograph as
‘‘just sitting and sitting . . or by the statement that “in a
city one cannot see such persons. She lives in a village,
caged in, never getting together with people.”

Associations to p pictures were illustrated by three
examples given to three different p pictures by two subjects.
All three associations — ^brief as they are — contain typically
paranoid elements, one directly on the pathologic level,
describing the person as having “delusions” and “institu-
tionalized,” the other two mentioning sublimated forms of
paranoid characteristics by emphasizing the “intellectual”
quality of the individuals represented by the p pictures. The
interpretation of the strong drive for intellectual sublima-
tion per se, as a “normal variation” of paranoid tendencies,
will be more fully discussed in connection with the inter-
pretation of the p factor.

There were two associations quoted to two different d pic-
tures, by two subjects. Both are in line without interpreta-
tion of the meaning of the d factor, although, in this case
it is even more difficult than in the previous cases to point
out the basic common “denominator” of the two associations.
The preoccupation with materialistic values and emotional
reactions, negative as well as positive, to the loss of such
values, is reflected in both associations. The psychotic sub-

EXPERIMENT OF FACTORIAL ASSOCIATION Sg

ject describes the woman whose face is represented in picture
Illd as “poor,” having “financial difficulties,” “having many
sorrows and worries,” but “industrious.” The other subject
described the man seen in picture IVd as “Shrewd and
calculating” and “unreliable.” These characteristics fit well
into our interpretation of the d factor which is linked with
what psychoanalysts usually refer to as “anal” character.

Associations to m pictures are illustrated by two examples
given by two subjects to two different m pictures. The com-
mon feature in both associations is the stress on “worldly”
characteristics, the tendency to associate types of individuals
who try to enjoy things. “Business man who lives very
happily with his family,” “has warmer family life than people
usually” or the other subject’s description of the woman
represented in IVm as a “nightclub singer, entertaining
people” are typical examples of association to m pictures.
They reflect the basic interpretation of the m factor which
centers around what is usually referred to as “oral” character.

These illustrative examples of verbal associations are of
course not “proof” in the strict sense of the word; yet they
throw light on the specific ways in which the stimulus mate-
rial of this test affects the subject. It is most probably justi-
fied to assume that the same perspective and projective
processes which are expressed in the verbal associations are
operating when choosing likes and dislikes from the pictures,
not accompanied by explicit verbal associations. In other
words the verbal material gained by the experiment of
“factorial association” supports our theory in regard to the
specific valence character of the eight factors in a rather
direct way. The fa ct that the test “works” has to be accepted
anyway as a pragmatic proof that something essentially
characteristic is expressed and reacted to in the pictures
used as stimulus material. However, this is a more indirect
way of reasoning than lies in an ability to point to verbal
associations evoked by nothing but the corresponding

84

SZONDl TEST

stimulus photograph, and consistently reflecting some aspect
of what we assume to be the basic underlying psychodynamics
of the particular diagnostic category, or in the terminology
of the test, of the particular factors.

The twenty-two sample associations alone are not con-
vincing for the validation of our hypotheses in regard to
the meaning of the eight factors, especially not for those who
have not yet started to work with the test and to collect
associative material themselves. Actually, the above examples
were selected practically at random from several hundreds
of associations, and they are representative of the type of
material we usually obtain through the experiment of fac-
.torial association. Just because this type of material is
extremely valuable for the purpose of validating various
a spects of t he hypgtheses underlying interpretation, a more
systematic study of such material would be desirable. If
proper categories are used in analyzing the verbal material,
the quantification of the results should be feasible, and once
we are in possession of such data, much of the still some-
w hat m ystic sounding suppositions underlying interpreta-
tion wifi be elevated to “experimentally proved” theory.

On the basis of the above examples, I tried to illustrate
at least one possible way of analyzing factorial associations,
and there is no reason why the same principles could not be
applied to the analysis of much larger samples. The thorough
knowledge and understanding of the psychodynamic inter-
pretation of each factor is naturally an essential prerequisite
for undertaking this type of research.

Besides illustrating a methodology, our purpose for includ-
ing this scope of analysis of the associations is to give an
earliest over-all approach to the interpretation of the eight
factors. It is hoped that these concrete examples will facili-
tate the understanding of some of the propositions implied
in interpretation and discussed in later chapters.

Chapter IV

General Principles of
Interpretation

1. Basic Meaning of the Factors

AS HAS been said before, the objective of this manual is
to present a series of purely psychologic assumptions from
which the interpretation of the test profiles can be derived.
Our first task is to find a general principle which explains
the meaning of choices, irrespective of the specific meaning
of the various factors. In other words, we are looking for a
general interpretation valid for all eight factors. Such an
interpretation can be found in the concept of need-tension,
or tension system, or driving force. Actually, all of these
terms can be used to convey the basic meaning common to
all the eight factors, since these factors correspond to dynamic
needs in the organism which act as driving forces, in the sense
of directing the person to perform certain acts and to choose
or avoid certain objects. The function of these actions,
object-choices, and avoidances is to reduce the tension origi-
nally existing due to unreleased need. Accordingly, the
degree of tension in a certain need-system depends upon the
existence or nonexistence of appropriate ways to discharge
the tension through specific activities. The specific type of
activity and the specific type of goal-objects which will be
needed in order to release the tension will be determined
by the quality of the particular need-system which, due to
its high tension, acts as a driving force. Lewin has formu-
lated this dynamic theory of need-systems by stating that,
depending upon the state of tension in the various need-
systems of the organism, various environmental objects
acquire valence character.

26

SZONDI TEST

The concept of need-tension is a tlieoretic explanation
which can be induced only from the presence of certain goal-
directed activities. Goal-directed activity in this general
sense can mean a positive attempt to reach for a certain
goal-object as well as a directed avoidance of a certain object.
In the first case, we talk about the object as having a posi-
tive valence; in the second case, we refer to the avoided object
as representing a negative valence.

This much of Lewin’s dynamic theory of action had to be
recapitulated because the action of choosing certain pictures
in the Szondi test has to be interpreted on the basis of the
same dynamic principle.

2- The Meaning of ‘'Loaded” and “Open” Reactions

We assume that the eight factors (diagnostic categories) in
the test correspond to eight different need-systems in the
organism. Thus we have an eight dimensional concept of
the personality, where the eight need-systems form a dynami-
cally interdependent whole. The eight types of mental and
emotional diseases represented in the test have to be thought
of as expressing certain psychological needs in extreme form,
which to some degree exist in everybody. That is the reason
the choice reactions from pictures representing actual mental
patients are indicative of the personality structure of psycho-
logically well-functioning subjects, as well as for patients
with any type and degree of emotional disturbances. Depend-
ing on the degree of (or intensity of) the state of tension
in each of the eight need-systems, the pictures representing
the corresponding needs will assume valence character in
various proportions. In this case the subject chooses pictures
from the factor corresponding to his own need in tension.
The absolute number of choices within one factor has to be
interpreted according to this principle. Relatively great
numbers of choices (four or more) from one category means
that the corresponding need is in state of strong tension.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION

On the test profile, the dynamically strongest need-tensions
are indicated by the so-called loaded reaction, which means
factors with four or more choices. (Three would be the
expected average and six are the maximum number of
choices in each factor.)

On the other hand, lack of choices in a certain category
means that the corresponding need is not in state of tension.
Theoretically, this state might be due to two reasons. It
might be due either to an original weakness of the particular
need, or else it might mean that the tension in this need-
system has been released by 'living out” the drive through
adequate activity. At any rate, the so-called ''open** or
"drained” reactions on the test profiles are important diag-
nostic signs because they indicate the areas in which there
is the least resistance to discharge of a corresponding need.
That is the reason observable symptoms, together with
other forms of manifest behavior, can be interpreted on the
basis of the "open” or "drained” reactions. On the test
profile, those factors are called "open” in which the number
of choices is zero, or one, or maximum two, but in this case
only if the two choices are distributed as one plus (liked)
and one minus (disliked).

At this point, more specific interpretation of the "open”
reactions can not be given because, depending on the configu-
rational pattern of the total test profile, and on the pattern-
ing of the total series of test profiles, the interpretation of
"discharging a particular need-tension” varies. Since all
eight of these basic psychologic tendencies — ^represented on
the profile by the eight factors — ^have a wide range of poten-
tial manifestation ranging from normal psychologic phe-
nomena to neurotic, psychotic or antisocial symptoms, one
has to be cautious with the interpretation of the "open”
reactions. This point has to be stressed because experience
shows that it is in this respect that beginners in the Szondi
method are most likely to make gross mistakes, usually in the

28

SZONDI TEST

direction of tending too quickly toward interpretations of
serious patliologic symptoms. This is probably a usual
danger for beginners in the use of any projective technic;
however, because the pictures in the Szondi test are labeled
with the initials of well-known pathologic categories, the
danger of tending rather toward pathologic interpretations
is increased. This is true for interpreting any types of reac-
tion in the test, but mostly for the ‘‘open’’ factors. The
misunderstanding is usually caused by the ambiguous mean-
ing of the terms “open” or “manifest.” These terms mean
only that in the area to which they relate there is a possi-
bility for some sort of a continuous discharge; or in other
words, there are no psychologic or other barriers causing a
damming up of the original drive. What form and intensity
of discharge is already sufficient to prevent such a damming
up of the need-energy depends, among other factors, on the
original intensity and quality of the particular need in ques-
tion. (And what this original intensity and quality of the
needs depends on, we probably do not know. That is the
point in our casual thinking where we have to resort to
explanatory concepts such as “constitution” or “genes.”)
One person can discharge aggression in a continuous way
and give a characteristic “open” reaction in the s factor by
“living out” this need through highly sublimated and socially
most acceptable forms of intellectual aggression, for instance
in scientific work, while the meaning of “open 5” in another
individual might be actual criminal activity.

The following two profiles illustrate the above example.
Figure 2 is the profile of a 40 year old woman, most active
in the field of social sciences and “fighting” for the right of
underprivileged minorities, while Figure 3 is the profile of
a 17 year old murderer. The open s reaction is common in
both; however, the difference in the rest of the test-patterns
is obvious; i.e., all the other seven factors show opposing
tendencies.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION

29

4-6
4*5
4-4
4-3
4-2
4-i
0

—1
—2
—3
-4
—5
-6

Fig. 2. Social Scientist; a 40 Year Old Woman

Fig. 3. A 17 Year Old Male Accused of Murder

30

SZONDI TEST

To summarize what has been said about the interpreta-
tion of the “loaded” and the “open” factors: when inter-
preting a test profile, the first thing we have to do is to
determine the relative dynamic strength of the eight factors.
This is done simply by counting the number of choices in
each factor, disregarding the difference between the “plus”
or “minus” directions. The most loaded factors will indi-
cate the dynamically strongest needs in the person, those
needs which either due to their original extreme intensity,
or due to the existence of some sort of an external or internal
barrier, were not able to release their dynamic energy. That
is the reason why these needs operate as the underlying causal
determinants of the observable behavior. While the under-
lying psychodynamics can be diagnosed from the loaded
factors, the actually observable form of behavior or the actual
form of the manifest clinical symptoms can be interpreted on
the basis of the “open” factors. These are the areas where
“kinetic” energy can be discharged.

With the presentation of a concrete example (Figure 4)
to illustrate the above outlined dynamic theory of inter-
preting the absolute number of choices, we will close the
discussion of the loaded and open factors.

In Figure 4, the most loaded factor is the k with six
choices (in other words all the photographs of catatonics
were chosen) and the second most loaded one is the h factor
with five choices. “Open” factors are the s, e and m. Accord-
ing to our theory, the observable behavior of this man must
display characteristic features in the areas corresponding to
the e and m factors, while the basic motivational sources
of his behavior must be found in the needs corresponding
to the k and h factors.

What is known about the behavior and the personality
problems of this subject fits well into the above theory. As
to the “open” factors: periodic paroxismal {e factor) out-
bursts of aggression {s factor) are his most obvious symptoms

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION 3I

of maladjustment. At these occasions of outburst he loses
practically all control in a rage of yelling and shouting
(m factor) at the least provocation — or rather, what seems
like provocation to him. The present profile was taken not
long after such a paroxismal outburst, hence the draining
in the e, and m factors.

+6

+s

+4
+3
+2
+1
0

-2
-3
-4
-5

Fig. 4. Twenty-eight Year Old Male Mathematician

However, these spectacular temper tantrums were only
surface symptoms and seemed to serve the purpose of
releasing his accumulated irritability which was caused by
his conflicts in the areas corresponding to h and k factors.
Indeed, he experienced painful conflicts in the sexual area,
and fought almost consciously against his own tendency
toward passive feminine identification (tension in the h
factor). The periodic overemphasis on aggression was most
probably due to a compensatory defense mechanism. How-
ever, a more forceful defense mechanism against the danger

SZONDI TEST

38

of allowing himself any emotional attachment of a passive
feminine nature was the attempt to withdraw his object-
libido and to try to barricade himself behind a rigid wall
of narcissistic pseudo self-sufficiency. This narcissistic with-
drawal (tension in the k factor) is actually his main mode of
defense and the main reason for his inability to adjust to
new situations satisfactorily. Yet, only those who know him
very well are aware of the existence of this fight for emo-
tional detachment as being an underlying cause in his diffi-
culties to get along with people. For the more superficial
observers, he seems a calm and quiet person whose only
personality problem is an unpredictable and uncontrollable
temper, which breaks out periodically and does not seem to
fit in to the rest of his otherwise apparently peaceful per-
sonality. Professionally he is a mathematician, but not suc-
cessful in his career despite his brilliant intellectual abilities.

I think this description of the subject’s personality and
behavior is enough to illustrate the meaning of the loaded
and the open factors and their use as indicators helping to
differentiate between surface symptoms and underlying
psychodynamics.

3. The Four Modes of Choice Reactions

Until now we were concerned only with the absolute
number of choices within any one factor. Now something
must be said about the meaning of the various directions
of choices in general; in other words, the task is again to
find a principle which explains the meaning of the differ-
ence between choosing pictures as likes or as dislikes, holding
equally for all the eight factors.

In the following, by the term “direction” we will refer
to the four main possible modes of reaction in each factor.
The “direction,” or mode, of choice-reactions within each

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION 33

factor can be: (a) positive; (b) negative; (c) ambivalent; or
(d) open.

a. We call a factorial reaction positive if two or more
choices in any one factor fall in the likes category and the
like choices are at least twice as numerous as the dislike
choices in the same factor. Concretely, we call a factor posi-
tive, or plus, if the choices are distributed in any of the
following manners:

2 Likes 2 Likes 3 Likes 3 Likes

0 Dislikes 1 Dislikes 1 Dislikes o Dislikes

4 Likes 4 Likes 4 Likes

2 Dislikes 1 Dislikes o Dislikes

5 Likes 5 Likes 6 Likes

1 Dislikes o Dislikes o Dislikes

b. We call a factorial reaction negative if two or more
choices fall in the dislike category and the dislike choices
are at least twice as numerous as the like choices. Concretely,
negative or minus reaction in any factor must show one of
the following distributions of choices:

o Likes 1 Likes o Likes 1 Likes

2 Dislikes 2 Dislikes 3 Dislikes 3 Dislikes

o Likes 1 Likes 2 Likes

4 Dislikes 4 Dislikes 4 Dislikes

o Likes i Likes o Likes

5 Dislikes 5 Dislikes 6 Dislikes

c. We call a factorial constellation ambivalent if the
choices within one factor show any of the following dis-
tributions:

2 Likes 3 Likes 2 Likes 3 Likes

2 Dislikes 3 Dislikes 3 Dislikes 2 Dislikes

34

SZONDI TEST

d. Open reactions have been discussed in connection with
the factorial loadings and drainings. We refer to a factor
constellation as open if the choices are:

o Likes o Likes i Likes i Likes

o Dislikes i Dislikes o Dislikes i Dislikes

4. Interpretation of the Four Modes of Factorial
Reactions

We know that the absolute number of choices within one
factor depends upon the dynamic strength of that particular
need tension system. The mode of the factorial choice-
reactions depends upon the subject’s conscious or uncon-
scious attitude toward the particular need.

A positive response for pictures of a certain factor indicates
a conscious or unconscious identification with the motiva-
tional processes as depicted by the photographs of the
respective factor.

Negative response indicates the existence of a counter-
identification with the psychologic processes as depicted in
the respective stimulus pictures.

The wording of the general interpretation of positive and
negative reactions had to be cautious because it is usually
tempting to identify plus reactions with acceptance and
minus reactions with the repression of the particular need
corresponding to the factor. However, this would be over-
simplification of the actual processes involved, especially if
we use the term repression in the strictly psychoanalytic
sense of the word.

Nonacceptance of a particular drive does not necessarily
mean repression, although repression does presuppose the
unconscious attitude of nonacceptance of the particular id
drive in question. However, in the Szondi test, the inter-
pretation of the psychologic processes corresponding to the
single factors cannot always be equated with various id drives.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION 35

In certain factors we have to assume that what the stimulus
material represents is already a psychologic mechanism pro-
duced by the modifying influence of the ego or superego.
For example, we will see that the interpretation of the
e factor presupposes the assumption that the pictures of
the e factor represent a state of constrictive control over
hostile emotions. Consequently in the e factor ‘‘repression,*'
in the psychoanalytic sense, is certainly not associated with a
negative reaction toward pictures which themselves repre-
sent something similar to repression. To the contrary — ^if at
all — ^repression in the e factor is indicated by a plus reaction.
(The fact that compulsion neurotics characteristically give
positive e reaction supports this statement.)

As a general principle one should keep in mind that the
psychologic mechanisms interpreted on the basis of various
configurations in the Szondi test profiles cannot be directly
equated with psychologic mechanisms well known from
psychoanalytic literature. Of course there are similarities,
and in the following chapters psychoanalytic concepts will
be used freely in the course of factorial interpretations,
always being conscious, however, of the fact that there is
no hundred per cent coincidence between any one Szondi
factor constellation and the psychoanalytic concept used for
its explanation.

The example cited above of the interpretation of the e
factor is the clearest example in the test to illustrate the
point that negative reaction is not always equal to repres-
sion. The interpretation which is valid for positive or
negative reactions in either factor is identification, or coun-
teridentification, respectively, with whatever psychologic
processes are represented by the stimulus pictures.

The meaning of the ambivalent reaction in any of the
eight factors can be deducted from the foregoing. It implies
that both identification and counteridentification are
present simultaneously in regard to the same psychological

SZONDI TEST

36

need,* The basic ambivalence toward a given emotional
need as indicated by the plus-minus reaction is subjectively
experienced as conflict, and has a very special significance
in interpretation. Experience has shown that ambivalent
reactions indicate areas where the conflicting, contradictory
tendencies corresponding to the plus and minus reactions
are subjectively experienced, almost to the extent of forming
a conscious source of a psychologic dilemma. The plus-
minus reactions always represent a certain amount of self-
imposed control against the direct discharge of the particular
need in question. That is the reason why ambivalent reac-
tions are sometimes referred to as “subjective symptom
factors” as against the open reactions which can be referred
to in this context as “objective symptom-factors.” On the
basis of the foregoing it is understood that by “symptom”
we do not necessarily mean pathologic, clinical symptom,
but any form of observable behavior which serves the pur-
pose of discharging a specific need-tension.

Similarly, the term “subjective symptom” implies only
the subjective experiencing of the simultaneous exist-
ence of opposing drives which, under certain conditions,
might even represent a satisfactory synthesis just because of
being aware of both aspects of the same basic drive, while
in other cases the same factorial constellation can result in
actual clinical symptom, or rather, become the source for an
overt clinical symptom. Of course on the basis of die total
pattern of a particular test-series we can judge in any indi-
vidual case whether a particular plus-minus reaction has
to be interpreted as a well-functioning synthesis or as the
symbol of a neurotic ambivalence. In certain factors it
seems easier than in others to find a satisfactory solution for

* In the framework of the Szondi test we will refer to “needs*' in a
broader sense than is usually done in dynamic psychology. For example,
we will refer to “needs'* to control or to inhibit certain open emotional
manifestations as well as to needs to live out drives in an uninhibited
way.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION 37

this duality inherent in the plus-minus reaction, (More will
be said about this problem of interpretation in a discussion
of the eight factors individually.) Besides the evaluation
of the individual plus-minus reactions in regard to the par-
ticular factor in which it was given, one has to evaluate the
ratio of the sum of all the open reactions over the sum of all
the plus-minus reactions within the complete test series of

S O reactions

a subject. This ratio: informs us approxi-

S ± reactions

mately about the relative proportion of the amount of avail-
able channels for discharging tensions, as against the amount
of conscious (at least many times conscious) self-control to
restrain drives from overt manifestation. Accordingly, the
value of this ratio can serve as an approximate indicator to
differentiate between individuals who tend to act out their
needs in an uninhibited way and those who rather tend to
use mechanisms of control. However, this ratio is not the
only sign in the test profiles to indicate uninhibited or
restrained behavior; therefore one has to be cautious with
the use of its interpretation. (To attempt to attribute defi-
nite interpretations to certain numerical values obtained
from the scoring of the responses to various projective tech-
nics is many times misleading.) In regard to this ratio of
the sum of open reactions over the sum of ambivalent reac-
tions it is safe to say that in cases where this ratio is smaller
than 1, we are dealing with a subject who is overcontrolled
in his behavior. Compulsive characters give characteristically
low ratio; in other words, it is characteristic for them to give
more ambivalent than open reactions. On the other hand,
if the value of this ratio is 5 or larger than 5, we can assume
that we are dealing with a person who exercises too little
control in regard to living out his drives. Restless, agitated,
and erratic behavior can be interpreted from a ratio-value
larger than 5. Impulsive characters, certain types of unpre-

gS SZONDI TEST

dictable psychopaths and agitated psychotics fall into this
category.

If the value of the ratio falls between i and 5, then only
very little use can be made of it for interpretation. It still
can be used as supportive evidence for or against a hypothesis
estimating the amount of control or rigidity in the subject’s
behavior, but only in conjunction with other sighs.

At this point the meaning of the open reactions does not
have to be discussed separately since this has been done in
connection with the loaded and open reactions and the ratio
of the open over the plus-minus reactions.

Thus we finish our discussion of the general principles to
interpret (1) the absolute number of choices in one factor,
and (2) the four main modes of factorial reactions.

5. Significance of Constancy or Changes in the
Factorial Reactions

A third group of general assumptions underlying inter-
pretation of a series of test profiles deals with the meaning
of constancy versus changeability of the factorial reactions
within a series of profiles. This aspect of interpretation may
be included in this main section of general principles of
interpretations because it does not presuppose the knowledge
of the specific meaning of the eight factors. Clinically, prob-
ably this is the most important point of view in the inter-
pretation because the various degrees and types of changes
are the first indicators which help to discriminate between
the main diagnostic categories of “normal” or pathologic
behavior. Just because the diagnostic importance of changes
varies with the different kinds of changes, we will have to
grade the various types of changes according to their diag-
nostic significance.

In classifying changes, obviously, we will always refer to
variations taking place in a factor-constellation from one
testing to another. In order of their increasing patho-

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION 39

diagnostic importance, such changes can be classified the
following way:

a. The absolute number, as well as the direction of the
choices, within the particular factor does not show any
change, but the actual pictures chosen from the same factor
are not the same; i.e., there are three plus h reactions in
both profiles, but the three h pictures were picked out a
second time from sets different from the first.

This type of change practically does not involve any
change in interpretation, because the dynamic strength of
the particular drive, as well as the subject’s attitude toward
this drive, has not changed.

b. The direction of the factor remains unchanged, but
there is some change in the loading or the distribution of
the factor; for example, a ‘‘plus three” reaction changes to
a “plus four,” or to a “plus two and minus one” reaction.
The diagnostic importance of such changes depends on the
number of squares which were added to or subtracted from
the reaction in the first set. This type of change has to be
interpreted according to the principle discussed under (i) in
the previous chapter (The dynamic significance of absolute
number of choices).

The appearance of one “minus” reaction in an otherwise
“plus” factor, or of one “plus” reaction in an otherwise
“minus” factor, has a special significance. These single
squares in the opposite direction from the majority of choices
within the same factor express that the subject is able to
divide his attitude toward this particular need without, how-
ever, expressing real ambivalence. This mode of reaction
expresses a certain desirable degree of flexibility in regard
to handling the particular drive, and therefore the appear-
ance of such “counteracting” single squares has to be inter-
preted as a favorable sign in diagnosis. The lack of such
“balancing” squares generally, in either factor, is a character-
istic reaction in profiles of psychotics. On the other hand.

SZONDI TEST

40

the presence of such slightly divided reactions is characteristic
for well-functioning individuals.

c. In the third degree of change we include those shifts
which already involve a change in the direction of the factor,
but only of the type of changing from “plus” or from “minus”
into “plus-minus,” or from a “plus-minus” into either “plus”
or “minus.” In other words, these changes always imply
some change in the subject’s attitude toward the particular
drive; however, never a complete reversal of the attitude
(from like to dislike or reverse); nor do these changes ever
indicate a great change in the dynamic strength of the need,
since the maximum change in this category with respect to
the absolute number of choices is a change from an average
(two or three choices in one direction) to a loaded constella-
tion (by definition every ambivalent reaction is at the same
time a loaded reaction since four choices are the minimum
to form a plus-minus reaction) or the reverse.

This type of change, and those in the previous two cate-
gories, are the most frequent changes in the so-called
“normal” population. It can be mentioned in this context
that in the Szondi test we do not assume that the maximum
degree of test-retest reliability is also the most desirable
degree. Since the Szondi test reflects the personality as a
dynamic process, and not as a static entity, some fluctuations
in the reactions, from one testing to the other, is expected
in any well-functioning individual. The maximum degree
of constancy is usually obtained not from the psychologically
best functioning subjects but from compulsive neurotics, or
from compulsively rigid characters.

d. In the next category of change, we find the shifts from
“plus,” or “minus,” or “plus-minus” to “open”; or we find
the reverse, from “open” to “plus” or “minus” or “plus-
minus.” The function subject to interpretation, common
to all these changes, is significant change in the dynamic
strength of the particular need in question. Depending on

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION 4I

whether the change occurred “towards” the open reaction
or “away” from the open reaction, one has to interpret a
sudden discharge of tension or a building up of a need-
tension. Whether or not a sudden discharge of a need-
tension involves a clinical symptom must be decided partly
on the basis of the original strength of the tension (i.e., the
number of squares in the factor previous to the open reac-
tion), and partly on the specific type of “open” reaction.
Even though the constellations S or j are both called open,
still in a qualitative clinical analysis one has to remember
that the ' constellation is “less” open (since there is still
residual tension) than is the ® constellation. The greater
the discrepancy in the dynamic strength of the factor from
one testing to the other (especially if the time interval
between testings is not more than a day), the more likely
it is that the discharge of the tension occurred through
“living out” the need by some clinical symptom. This is
practically always the case if a strongly loaded factor sud-
denly opens up completely. Sudden drainings of factors
with two or three choices, or even four if the draining takes
the form of occur quite frequently even in individuals
without any known clinical symptoms.

e. In the fifth type of change belongs the so-called factorial
reversals: that means shifts from “plus” to “minus” or from
“minus” to “plus.” The pathodiagnostic significance of this
type of change depends again on the number of squares
which actually changed their position from plus to minus,
or reverse. Obviously the diagnostic significance of a *
constellation changing into a s is much less than change
of a 5 or ^ to a ® or ^ When a “loaded plus” changes
into a “loaded minus” or reverse, in the course of 48 hours,
one always has to suspect pathologic mechanism in that par-
ticular area. This is particularly true in cases where such
an intensive reversal in a factor is repeated several times in
the course of a series of ten profiles. Such repeated reversals

SZONDI TEST

42

are characteristic for manifest psychoses or certain types of
unstable psychopaths.

In evaluating a series of test profiles it is advisable to trans-
late the single graphic profiles into symbols of directions
of the eight factors (+, — , ±, O) and then to write the
profiles expressed this way, one under the other, consecu-
tively. This procedure helps us to perceive the trends of
changes (or constancy) in each factor quickly, since a whole
series of ten or more profiles can be recorded in a relatively
small space which facilitates quick recognition of trends.
However, one should never rely solely on the interpretation
of such a “symbolized,’' abbreviated record, because many
of the quantitative and qualitative details can be seen only
on the original test profiles. The purpose of converting
a series of profiles into symbols of factorial directions is to
help us in evaluating quickly the trends in each factor.

To recapitulate the main points in regard to what trends
to look for when we first inspect such a symbolized repre-
sentation of a test profile series:

1. We have to look for the factors which show open
reactions most frequently because these are the areas with
possibilities of steady discharge of the corresponding need.
Manifest behavior patterns or observable symptoms are indi-
cated by these factors.

2. We have to look for factors which show ambivalent
reactions most frequently because these are the “subjective
symptom factors,” the areas where conflict is actually
experienced.

3. We have to look for those factors which show a steady
plus or minus direction because these factors, where open
discharge is not possible nor experienced consciously as con-
flict, are most likely to act as unconscious driving forces
underlying actual behavior or actual clinical symptoms.

4. Finally, coming back to our present topic of discussion,
we have to look for the kind of change occurring in each

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION 43

factor. The meaning of the various types of change need
not be repeated here. In inspecting the trends of changes
we should never forget to check the intensity of changes from
the graphic profiles. The areas where actually the most
pathologic processes are taking place can be detected from
the factors which show most frequent complete reversal of
direction (plus to minus or vice versa).

/. For the sake of completeness, one more type of change
has to be mentioned. This is the so-called ""mirror reaction'*
in the vector as a whole. This type of change implies that
both factors of a certain vector change their direction simul-
taneously in such a manner that on the second profile the
vectorial configuration is a complete mirror picture of the
constellation of the first profile. For example, changes of
plus h and minus s into minus h and plus s^ or of open e
and minus hy into minus e and open hy, belong to this
category.

This is the last category in our classification of changes
according to their diagnostic significance because these vec-^
torial “mirror reversals*’ are the strongest diagnostic signs
for the existence of a pathologic process in the respective
area. The specific kind of process has to be diagnosed onT
the basis of the vector in which the mirror reversals occur.
Mirror reversals in the Sch vector are characteristic for an
actual schizophrenic process. This reaction is especially
frequent in the beginning stages of the psychosis; in other
words, befoye some sort of stabilization of the personality —
even though on a regressed level — took place. Similarly,
vectorial mirror changes in the C vector are characteristic
for cyclic type of mental disturbances; the same type of
change in the S vector indicates a basically disturbed unstable
sexuality, and in the P vector, a serious disturbance in the
sphere of emotional control. As can be seen from the
examples, these types of change — especially if they occur
more than once in a series of ten profiles — ^are interpreted

SZONDI TEST

44

in a primarily pathologic frame of reference. In cases of
well-functioning individuals, we rarely find such mirror
changes. It might occur, however, that in the course of
ten profiles a complete reversal in the configuration of any
vector does take place, even in individuals without any
obvious clinical symptoms. However, in these cases the
complete reversals usually occur gradually; i.e., a plus k
and minus p first changes into plus-minus k, minus p, then
either directly or through more transitions it reaches the
minus k and plus p constellation. Such constantly changing
vectors still indicate that the particular area is a potential
“danger point” in the personality, because of the lack of
consistency in control of corresponding drives; but if the
immediate changes from one testing to the other are not
of the type described under headings e and / above (pp. 41,
43), then solutions within a socially acceptable and not
overtly pathologic framework are still possible.

Thus we finish the classification and the discussion of the
psychologic meaning of factorial and vectorial changes. This
structural aspect of interpretation should always take place
before one proceeds to interpret the meaning of the indi-
vidual factors or correlation of factors according to their
content.

6. General Vectorial Configurations

There are two more “structural” characteristics of tlie
test profiles which are significant for diagnosis. Because
these are the last two points which have to be considered
in interpretation before the qualitative analysis of the factors,
their description will be included in this part of the chapter
although they have nothing to do with changes.

Both of these formal characteristics concern the relative
position of the two factors within the same vector. One
aspect pertains to the relative direction of the two factors,
the odier to the relative loading of the two factors.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION 45

Since the two factors of the same vector are always con-
sidered to represent two opposing tendencies of the same
main psychologic sector of the personality, one can expect
that under normal conditions these two related tendencies
are not handled in too different a manner. Just because
the two related factors represent some basic similarities and
contrasting tendencies at the same time, we assume that their
simultaneous functioning — ^if both are in the proper propor-
tion — ^has some sort of a self-regulatory effect, in the sense
of opposing forces balancing the effect of each other. The
assumption underlying this statement is that actually both
tendencies of a vector are integral parts of a well-functioning
organism.

On the other hand, from this assumption it follows that
great discrepancy in the manner in which the two closely
linked, yet opposing, tendencies are handled indicates lack
of balance in the respective main area of the personality.
This lack of balance is due to the lack of self-regulating
effect of the two opposing factors.

The two structural aspects of the profiles which indicate
the presence or the lack of such self-regulated balance in
the four main areas in which the Szondi test “measures”
personality, are the relative direction and the relative loac^
ing of the two interrelated factors of a vector. In well-
functioning, “psychologically balanced,” individuals, we
expect that, in at least two of the four vectors, the factors
do not point toward diametrically opposing direction^
Typically “dissociated” profiles with factors pointing into
opposing directions in all four vectors are characteristic of
schizoid individuals. By diametrically opposing directions,

I mean a direction of absolute positive reaction in one factor
and a direction of completely negative reaction in the other
factor in the same vector. The presence or lack of those
single “balancing” squares in the opposite direction from
the majority of choices within the same factor have special

SZONDI TEST

46

significance in this connection. The presence of such squares
in both factors have themselves the efiEect of regulating some-
what the balance of forces within the same area. That is a
good example to illustrate why one should never rely on
interpreting the structural trends from the abbreviated
(symbolized) record alone. If we see the symbols +, — in

one vector, that can mean the constellation * as well as

^12

s “. The differences in the interpretation of these two varia-
tions of -f, — , vectorial reactions, is clear from the foregoing.

The relative loading of the two connected factors is
another indication whether or not the two corresponding
and counterbalancing drives are dealt with about the same
way. The absolute number of squares should be about tlie
same if there is no great discrepancy between the dynamic
tension of the two factors. As a general principle, one can
say that great difference in the loading of the two factors
of a vector is never desirable. Simultaneous tension in both
factors has a mutually modifying effect on the manifestation
of the two related drives, while tension in one factor witli
simultaneous discharge of the tension in the “twin” factor
results in unmodified, unrestrained attempts to release the
particular drive in state of tension. In such a constellation
the meaning of both the factor which is not open as well as
the meaning of the open factor is more likely to imply some
sort of pathologic interpretation. This is particularly true
if there are more than two such disproportionately charged
vectors.

Chapter V

Formalized Analysis of a Series
of Ten Profiles

IN THIS last chapter concerning structural interpreta-
tion, Szondi’s new scoring sheet, which summarizes the results
of a series of ten profiles, will be presented and discussed.
The upper half of the scoring sheet allows space for the
graphic representation of the ten profiles, the lower half of
the sheet serves for recording the single profiles in symbols
of factorial directions. In addition, there is room left for
various computations, all of which are based on those aspects
of interpretation which were discussed in the previous
chapter. Instead of describing and discussing theoretically
this scoring method, we will illustrate its use by a concrete
example.

Figure 5 represents the complete scoring of ten profiles of a
32 year old man. First we are going to follow the procedure
of constructing the complete record step by step, and then we
will interpret the results in the light of what has been said
about the most important aspects of structural, or “formal,’*
interpretation. By these adjectives it is meant that we will go
as far in interpretation as we can without the consideration
of the specific meaning of the eight factors. In other words,
the points to be considered will be the specific trends of the
factors with respect to symptomatic factors (“objective” symp-
tom factors: open; “subjective” symptom factors: plus-minus
reactions) and underlying or “root” factors (steady plus or
steady minus reactions), and the type of changes taking place
in the single factors and vectors.

47

FORMALIZED ANALYSIS OF A SERIES OF TEN PROFILES 49

After the graphic representation of the ten profiles, the
profiles are recorded according to the direction of the factors.
In this second half of the scoring scheme, the first column
with the consecutive Roman numerals (I to X) denotes the
number of the profile in the series of ten. One horizontal
row corresponds to one complete profile. The eight initials
heading the eight vertical columns indicate the respective
boxes for the eight factors. Thus, after all the ten profiles
have been “translated” into directions, we can easily follow
up the trends of the eight factors in any one profile, or else
the trend of one specific factor throughout the ten profiles,
depending whether we inspect the rows horizontally or the
columns vertically.

Next comes the adding up of the symptomatic factors,
first the “objective symptom factors” (open reactions) and
then the “subjective symptom factors” (plus-minus reactions).
This adding up is done for both the individual profiles and
the individual factors throughout the ten profiles. On the
scoring sheet, the two columns headed by S and S ±:,
after the factorial columns, serve to add up the daily amount
of open and plus-minus reactions separately, and the last
column in the whole scheme serves for adding up both kinds
of symptomatic reactions.

The two horizontal rows below the row indicated by
Roman numeral X for the last profile, serve for adding up
first the open reactions, then the plus-minus reactions, then
the two together, for the eight factors individually. S O
again indicates the summing up of the open reactions in
the particular factor, 5 ±: indicates the sums of the plus-
minus reactions and the initials T.sp.G. indicate the sum-
ming up of the two previous categories. (T.sp.G. stands for
the German terms “Tendenzspannung Grad.” For explana-
tion and justification of the use of this concept see Szondi:
Experimentelle Triebdiagnostik, pp. 57-59.) Szondi him-
self originated this concept, and the term to express a certain

S20NDI TEST

50

quality of tenseness of the symptomatic factors, which he
derives from his genetic theory of drives. Since the genetic
origin of drives is not included as a basic assumption in this
book, we will not make use of the above concept, except in
the sense of the sum of symptomatic reactions. Thus on the
basis of this row where the sum of all the open and the sum
of all the plus-minus reactions were added up in each factor
separately, we can arrange a rank order of the factors accord-
ing to their tendency for symptomatic reactions. The largest
number in this row will pertain to the most “symptomatic”
factor, while the smallest number will denote the factor
with the greatest dynamic effect, underlying the symptomatic
behavior: this is the factor (or factors) Szondi calls “root-
factors,” indicating by this term their position in the
“deepest” layers of the personality.

In our example there are five factors equally “sympto-
matic” — in case we add up the “objective” and “subjective”
symptomatic reactions. These are: hy^ d and m (8 each).
The least “symptomatic,” in other words the deepest “root”
factor, is the ^ (1), and between these two extremes we find
the h with a total of 4, in symptomatic reactions.

A formalized expression of the relative proportion of
symptomatic reactions in each factor is what Szondi indi-
cates on the scoring-sheet as “Triebformel” (“Formula of
drives”). The relationship between the symptomatic and root
factors is symbolized in the form of a fraction with the most
symptomatic factors in the place of the enumerator and the
least symptomatic (“root”) factors in the place of the denomi-
nator. The initials of the factors with “middle” values of
symptomatic reactions are put down in the middle row of
the “formula.” This symbolization gives a quick overview
of the relative dynamic effectiveness of the eight factors.
Actual symptoms have to be looked for in the psychologic
areas corresponding to the factors in the upper line, while
underlying causal factors have to be looked for in areas

FORMALIZED ANALYSIS OF A SERIES OF TEN PROFILES 5I

corresponding to the factor in the lowest line. The diag-
nostic significance of the factors in the middle row is not
quite clear yet. There is no exact rule in regard to the exact
number of factors to be set down in each of the three lines
of the “formula,” nor is there an exact rule about the abso-
lute number of the index of “symptomatic” reactions on the
basis of which it may be decided whether a given factor
should be set down in the first, middle, or lowest row. The
placing of the factors in the “formula” has to be done solely
on the basis of the relative value of their index of sympto-
matic reactions. Accordingly, there might be cases with a
much greater number of “causal” or “root” factors than
channels for open symptom formation, as well as the reverse.
An example of the latter configuration is our present case,
with six “symptomatic” and only one real “root” factor.
Naturally, these various proportions of “causal” as against
“symptomatic” reactions are most important considerations
in interpretation. (Interpretation of the illustrative case
will be given in a later part of this chapter.) Diagnostic
tables for interpreting the specific meaning of the various
configurations of the “drive-formulas” are given in the
Appendix of Szondi’s Experimentelle Triebdiagnastik
(Tables XI-XX).

While the “drive-formula” indicates the quantitative and
qualitative distribution of all the symptomatic factors versus
the “root” factors, the ratio on the right side of the scoring
sheet marked with Arabic numeral i (Tendenzspannungs-
quotient), serves to express the quantitative relationship
between all the “objective” as against all the “subjective”
symptomatic reactions. The interpretation of this ratio as
an indicator of the degree of self-control in the subject’s
behavior, has been discussed in connection with the open
and plus-minus reactions (pp. 37-38).

Now we arrive at the last computation which has to be
done on the basis of the sum of all the symptomatic reactions

S20NDI TEST

5 ^

in each of the eight factors. After adding the sum of all
the open to the sum of all the plus-minus reactions in each
.factor, we obtain one value in each factor, which is referred
to above as the “index of symptomatic reactions” and which
Szondi symbolized on the scoring sheet with the initials:
T.sp.G. (Tendenzspannungsgrad). The next step consists
of obtaining the difference of these two index values for each
vector separately. This is done by subtracting the smaller
from the larger index number in each vector; the difference
thus obtained is entered in the last horizontal row of the
scheme, which has four boxes for the respective differences
in the four vectors, indicated by the initials of the vectors
(5, Sch^ C). This last row is indicated on the scoring sheet
with the German term, Latenzgrosse (degree of latency).
Szondi originated this term in order to express the dynamic
significance of this difference. What this differential value
expresses is the degree of discrepancy within the four pairs
of “twin” factors in regard to their proneness of exhibiting
symptomatic reactions. The greater this value, the greater
the difference in the two factors of the same vector in regard
to the frequency of symptomatic reactions. The psycho-
dynamic significance of the degree of similarity or discrep-
ancy in the way the two factors of a given vector are handled,
has been discussed in the previous chapter (pp. 38-44).
There is only one difference in the foregoing psychodynamic
considerations and the present one, in which we attempt to
clarify the rationale underlying this concept of “degree of
latency,” which takes such a prominent place in Szondi’s
book, where practically his whole reasoning of interpretation
is centered in this one concept.

In our previous considerations we always referred to the
relative loading of two factors, the measure of loading being
the absolute number of squares within one factor. When
we mentioned the lack of self-regulatory balance in connec-
tion with the disproportionately charged vectors, it was

FORMALIZED ANALYSIS OF A SERIES OF TEN PROFILES 53

meant in this sense. However, in Szondi’s concept of “degree
of latency,” the criterion for the similarity or discrepancy
in two factors is not based solely on the absolute number
of squares within one factor, since plus-minus reactions
(which according to the number of choices are always loaded
reactions) and open reactions are thrown together into one
category under the heading of “symptomatic reactions.”
Accordingly a vectorial configuration of the type ° (where
the absolute number of choices is identical) is evaluated in
the formalized scoring as the same degree of discrepancy
as if the configuration in another vector is ®

The reasoning is that in spite of the relatively great num-
ber of choices, the plus-minus reactions have little underlying
dynamic eflEectiveness as compared with what Szondi calls
“root” factors (factors which are steadily plus, or steadily
minus, or change from plus to minus or vice versa); because
the ambivalence in a factor implies the subjective (many
times conscious or close to conscious) experience of the con-
flict which in turn implies that the respective need is not
acting from the deepest (unconscious) layers of the person-
ality. Actually I do not know whether Szondi himself would
quite agree with this psychodynamic explanation and justifi-
cation of the process of how one arrives at the “degree of
latency” in each factor, since in the Experimentelle Trieb-
diagnostik^ he justifies the throwing together of ambivalent
and open reactions in the same dynamic category on the
basis of some innate ambitendency of needs.

After having gone this far into discussing the underlying
rationale of the process of obtaining the “degree of latency”
in each vector, we shall discuss its further use in interpreta-
tion. First, one more aspect of its scoring. It has been said
that in each vector the smaller index of the frequency of
symptomatic reactions (T.sp.G.) has to be subtracted from
the larger index and the difference — indicating the “degree
of latency” of the particular vector — is entered in the respec-

SZONDI TEST

54

tive box of the last row. Now we have to add to the printed
initial of each vector the initial of that particular factor
which had the smaller index of symptomatic reactions. In
other words, we specify the four main categories of the four
vectors by attaching the initial of the factor which has been
subtracted from the one with the larger frequency of symp-
tomatic reactions, as a small “foot-index*' to the capital initial
of the vector.

For example, in Figure 5 the frequency of symptomatic
reactions in the h factor was 4, of the s factor, 1; the differ-
ence (4-1) is 3, which denotes the “degree of latency" of
the S vector and is entered after the initial S in the last row.
Now we added as a qualifying index a small s to the capital
in order to signify that in this case the s factor was the one
with less frequency of symptomatic reactions, or in the case
of our dynamic theory, the index of small s signifies that in
this case the s was the dynamically more effective factor
than the h^ the s acting from deeper layers of the personality
than the more symptomatic h.

This deeper dynamic effectiveness of the factor with the
smaller frequency of symptomatic reactions was exactly the
reason that made Szondi decide to qualify the vectorial
“degree of latency" on the basis of the factor which origi-
nally had the smaller index of symptomatic reactions. The
psychodynamic importance of a vector — from the point
of view of its effect on the total personality — ^is deter-
mined more by the factor which is more latent, and there-
fore exerts its influence through unconscious mechanisms,
than by the factor which serves as a channel for symptom-
formation, or one which is consciously experienced as con-
flict. A further specification of each “degree of latency"
can be done by attaching not only the small initial of the
more “latent" factor to the symbol of the vector, but also
by indicating whether the characteristic direction of this
more latent factor is plus or minus. (It never can be plus-

FORMALIZED ANALYSIS OF A SERIES OF TEN PROFILES 55

minus or open, since those reactions are excluded by defini-
tion from the “latent” factors.) Thus each vector can have
four possible types of “degree of latency” depending upon
which one of the two factors is more “latent” (less sympto-
matic) and further, upon the characteristic plus or minus
direction of this more latent factor.

There are two more blank spaces on the scoring sheet,
indicated by Arabic numerals 5 and 4 on the lower right
side of the sheet, which have to be explained. 5 is called
Latenzproportionen which can be translated into English as
proportions of latencies. All it means is, that the four values
of the “degrees of latency” for the four vectors should be
entered in order of their magnitude in the four pre-marked
spaces under 3. In each space we write the vectorial initial
and the specifying index of the factor and direction above
the line, and the corresponding numerical value below the
line. Recording the “degrees of latency” this way, in order
of their magnitude, serves the purpose of helping us to get
a quick overview about the relative dynamic strength of
the four vectors, indicating simultaneously the specific needs
which act as “latent,” unconscious driving forces.

Under 4 on the scoring sheet, one has to enter the symbol
of that particular “degree of latency” which was the strongest
one, in other words the first one in the order of “proportions
of latency ” — s under 5. Szondi believes that this vector and
factor, which was singled out on the basis of its relative
strongest degree of latency, represents the individually most
characteristic aspect of the subject’s personality. He con-
siders this particular factor, which represents the most
dynamic unconscious driving force, to function as a “key”
to the understanding of the total personality. That is Ae
reason why 4 on the scoring sheet is indicated as '"Trieb-
klasse/' (“Drive-class” or “category of drive”), meaning that
the subject can be described as belonging to that particular
“class” of individuals for whom the dynamic power of the

SZONDI TEST

56

particular need which is indicated in the symbol, is the
strongest determining factor in their personality. Szondi
assumes that individuals can be classified on the basis of
their strongest latent need and that individuals belonging
to the same “class” have essentially similar personality pat-
terns. A great part of his Experimentelle Triebdiagnostik
is taken up by the descriptions of the personality types
corresponding to the various “drive classes.” (See pp. 73-
83 and 224—250). Since there are eight factors, and further
on each factor can be “latent” in either plus or minus direc-
tion, there are 16 basic variations of such classes (Sj^^; Sii_;
Sg^; Sg_, etc.). Szondi, however, goes further in subdividing
these 16 basic “drive classes” on the basis of whether two or
three of the remaining vectors show similar magnitude of
their “grade of latency.” On this basis he arrives at the
classification of bi-, tri-, and quadri-equal “classes” which
results finally in a total of 144 possible variations of sub-
classes. His book contains personality descriptions corre-
sponding to the 16 basic classes and then brief, rather general-
ized characterizations of the individuals belonging to the
so-called “tri-equal” and “quadri-equal” classes. This last
category refers to individuals for whom no one specific factor
has more dynamic significance than the other, and who
therefore form a rather pathologic group in themselves, just
because of the lack of any definite “vertical” structurization
in their personalities.

Further on the “drive formulas” serve to differentiate
between the various possible interpretations of one main
“drive category.”

For example, all individuals belonging to the class Sg^
(that is, the “drive class” of the case illustrated in Figure 5)
are characterized by the fact that repressed aggression is their
most dynamic latent “causal” factor, forming the underlying
dynamics for whatever character or symptom formations they
develop. Whether or not this repressed aggression will result

FOR^IALIZED ANALYSIS OF A SERIES OF TEN PROFILES 57

simply in a “passive*' character, or in a masochistic character,
or in some definite form of neurosis or psychosis, can be
decided on the basis of its particular “drive formula*’ which
indicates the possible channel or channels through which
this repressed aggression can somehow be discharged (natu-
rally in this particular “drive class** we can only mean round-
about, indirect ways of discharge of aggression, otherwise
the “s** would not be the “root” factor, but a “symptom”
factor).

The above-mentioned diagnostic tables (XI-XX) in
Szondi’s book can be used for differential diagnosis in the
various “drive classes” on the basis of the “drive formulas.”
The use of those tables should be restricted for cases who
are known to have some sort of pathologic symptoms, and the
problem is to differentiate between the various symptoms of
pathology, since the respective tables only furnish such diag-
nostic categories or one-word personality characterizations.

As was said in the introduction, my intention was that
the content of this book not overlap with Szondi’s Experi-
mentelle Triebdiagnostik. Therefore there will not be any
further discussion of various “drive classes” and “drive for-
mulas” which really represent the core of Szondi’s inter-
pretation in his book. Because he centers his interpre-
tation around these rather recently developed formal
categories, and constructed the scoring sheet for ten profiles
accordingly, I thought it necessary to discuss that much of
the psychologic reasoning underlying the construction of
these categories, so that psychologists using the test and the
accompanying pads of scoring sheets would be able to follow
at least the way of thinking involved in the construction
of the various symbols and categories which are indicated
on the scheme. For further details on the use of this method,
however, I have to refer to Szondi’s book, since this whole
method is not so much the core of my usual way of thinking
when interpreting a series of profiles, as it is in Szondi’s

SZONDI TEST

58

presentation. Yet it is essential to fill out completely all
the categories of the scoring sheet whenever we are dealing
with a series of profiles. In this way we have a sure safe-
guard that none of the important aspects of interpretation
have been neglected, which can be the case when we rely
solely on the interpretation of the graphic profiles. On the
other hand, I would never advise a reliance on the inter-
pretation of the ‘‘drive-classes” and “formulas” alone, with-
out careful qualitative analysis of the test profiles them-
selves. The interpretation of the eight factors, the descrip-
tion of the psychodynamic mechanisms represented by the
eight diagnostic categories of the test material, will be the
content of the next chapter. This kind of interpretative
reasoning is emphasized specifically in this book, since
Szondi’s book contains rather the methods of interpretation
on the basis of his diagnostic tables.

Now that the formal scoring categories have been dis-
cussed, one can illustrate their use on the concrete example
of case F.T., whose series of ten profiles is completely scored
in Figure 5. Here we will interpret only on the basis of
the formal scoring categories. However, the same case will
be discussed again on the basis of the specific meaning of the
eight factors and correlations of the factors, at the end of
the next chapter.

First let us see the ratio of all his open reactions to all
his plus-minus reactions. The corresponding value of 1.08
falls within the range which has relatively little diagnostic
significance, still one can say that in this man there is the
same amount of forces functioning in the direction of self-
control as he has channels for the purpose of discharging
certain need-tensions. This constellation would exclude the
possibility of an uninhibited, “acting-out” type of a person.
He might or might not have pathologic symptoms, but even
if he does, he certainly still resorts to the use of mechanisms
of control.

FORMALIZED ANALYSIS OF A SERIES OF TEN PROFILES 59

From 5 and 4 on the right side of the scoring sheet we
can see that this man belongs to the “tri-equal Sg_ class.
Ss_ because the S vector is the one with the largest value of
the “degree of latency” the h factor giving four times
as many symptomatic reactions as the s factor (two plus-minus
and two open h reactions); and the index of is attached
to the S because the direction of the “latent” (nonsympto-
matic) s factor is minus. Furthermore, the qualification
“tri-equal” was added to denote his “drive class” because
the “degree of latency” in the remaining three vectors is
approximately equal (Sch:i, P: 0 > C: 0 )* According to
Szondi, the interpretation of the “tri-equal” classes has to be
done on the basis of the one remaining vector in which the
“degree of latency” is different from that of the three other
vectors. Yet, he believes there are some characteristic fea-
tures in common to all the members of the “tri-equal class,’*
determined by the common dynamic characteristic that all
these individuals have equal possibilities for discharging the
one most dynamic latent need through the three remaining
vectors.

On page 80 of the Experimentelle Triebdiagnostik^ the
following characteristics common to the members of the
“tri-equal class” are listed:

1. Fixation regression to the stage of bisexual orienta-
tion.

2. Tendency for inverted forms of sexuality, either in
respect to the object choice or to the goal of the activity
in connection with the love-object.

3. Frequently found in manifest homosexuals, or

4. In juvenile types of megalomania.

5. Typical for individuals who find themselves in a crisis
in regard to their most important object-attachment (critical
forms of libido-cathexis),

6. Mechanisms of compulsion neurosis, or

7. Paranoid traits. (As 8, Szondi adds that individuals

6o

SZONDI TEST

of this class are mostly oflEsprings of paranoid or manic-
depressive ancestors.)

The general description of the class Sg__ is given in two
places of the book, a short description on page 74, and
a detailed characterization on pp. 225-228. (This is one
of the “drive classes” which Szondi worked out most in
details.) The most characteristic features mentioned are:
tendency for intensive but sado-masochistic type of object-
cathexis. Individuals find themselves in the above described
“crisis of object relationship”; they cannot rid themselves
from the love object they hate and love at the same time.
They cling to this object in a sado-masochistic way. Depend-
ing on the specific constellation of the “drive-formula” there
are various possible “solutions” to “solve” this basic sado-
masochistic conflict. (“Solution” in this context is not meant
as a necessarily healthy solution, but only as a final resultant
of the basic conflict plus the other forces operating at the
same time.)

The drive formula which is most similar to that of our
present case is found in the second vertical column under
I on table XII in the appendix of Szondi's book. Here we
see that for individuals who belong to class Sg^, and have a
“drive-formula” of the type: (in the tables only

the symptomatic and the root factors are indicated without
the in-between factors) the following symptoms are character-
istic: obsessive and compulsive ideas and neurosis; inability
to work; paranoid schizophrenia. This drive formula is not
exactly identical with the one in Figure 5 but quite similar
to it. Since our case belongs to the “tri-equal” class, the
chances for pathologic symptoms are enhanced.

The coincidence between the interpretation based solely
on the tables and the actual case-history is practically one
hundred per cent. The man is a most serious case of com-
pulsion neurosis. He is a man with equivalent of college
education, who, at the time the profiles were taken, was

FORMALIZED ANALYSIS OF A SERIES OF TEN PROFILES 6l

unable to continue his usual office work because his com-
pulsive ceremonies and rituals took up practically his whole
day. His symptoms, mostly ceremonies in connection with
cleanliness, started years ago with certain bathroom rituals
and set ways of dressing himself which handicapped him con-
siderably in the performance of his daily routine in the
office where he was working. At the time of the testing,
he came for psychiatric help of his own accord, because by
then he was completely the victim of his obsessive ideas. In
a way which is characteristic for compulsive neurotics, he
knew intellectually all about his sickness and wrote lengthy
dissertations, in the form of an autobiography, about com-
pulsion neurosis and schizoid personality. Yet, all this intel-
lectual knowledge did not alter his magic belief that unless
he performed all his rituals, something terrible would happen
to his mother, whom he ‘‘adored.*’ The subject, who was
32 years old at the time, was never married, and lived with
his mother with whom, due to his inability to go out of the
house, he spent practically twenty-four hours of the day.
The father died when the subject was a child. Thus with
the help of his symptoms he succeeded in completely narrow-
ing down his actual “life-space” until nothing but the mother
and his bathroom ceremonies were included, and also his
frequent visits to the outpatient clinic where he indulged in
verbose descriptions and complaints about his symptoms.
He and his mother irritated each other, still they were unable
to live without each other.

A dramatic change took place after the tenth test profile
had been taken. The subject suddenly gave up his compul-
sive defense mechanisms and a real paranoid schizophrenia
broke out. Without any previously detectable symptoms
(except the symptoms of compulsive neurosis) he suddenly
became violent and attempted to injure his mother physi-
cally. At this stage he had to be institutionalized. His
profile in this stage is shown in Figure 6.

62

SZONDI TEST

The changes in the structure of the whole profile are
obvious. The characteristic minus s changed into plus s,
the e which was always plus-minus became completely minus,
and most significant: the Sch vector shows the typical vec-
torial “mirror reversal” * (described in the chapter on
changes under pp. 43-44). As can be seen, the use of
the tables, at least in this case, resulted in a perfect diagnosis
of the symptoms as well as of the underlying dynamics. Even
the latent paranoid schizophrenia which developed overtly
only after the series of ten profiles had been finished, could
be diagnosed on the basis of the “drive formula.” I selected
the above case for illustration at random from my own
material and actually did not know whether or not the
description on the basis of the tables would fit the clinical
picture until I finished writing the previous pages, where

♦Plus-minus “k” and open changing into open “k'* and plus-
minus * p.'*

FORMALIZED ANALYSIS OF A SERIES OF TEN PROFILES 63

the respective characterizations of this particular “drive class”
and “drive formula” were translated word by word from
the German edition of Szondi’s book. Yet, I would never
advise a basis of interpretation solely or even primarily on
this method. I think too much emphasis on the use of
“tables” in interpreting the results of a projective technic
has always the danger of mechanizing the process of inter-
pretation. Relying completely on diagnostic tables * would
mean that the interpreter arrives at certain conclusions with-
out having gone through the actual psychologic experience
of interpreting. This experience of interpreting consists of
mobilizing the interpreter’s own ability to project himself
into somebody else’s reactions and then have the ability to
build up an integrated picture of the personality on the basis
of having really understood, not only intellectually, but also
emotionally, the psychologic mechanisms which are the com-
ponent elements of the total personality as a functioning
whole. All that implies a most complex psychologic process
on the part of the interpreter, involving a fusion of certain
intellectual and emotional processes, which probably can
never be taught completely. All one can do in teaching is
to explain as clearly as possible the “component” mechanisms
and the final outcome of some of their most usual combina-
tions; but much of the interpretation of all the possible com-
binations of the constituent elements (in our case that means
the possible combinations of eight factors in four possible
directions, or in other words, four vectors with sixteen pos-
sible intravectorial constellations, in all possible combina-
tions) has to be left to the understanding of the individual
interpreter. How much he will be able to utilize the
elements of knowledge for the interpretation of practically
never identical personality patterns, will depend partly on
his general psychiatric experience with real people (and not

* I do not mean the proper use of statistical tables, but of qualitative
diagnostic tables.

SZONDI TEST

64

with textbooks), partly on his own personality, particularly
on his ability to project himself emotionally into somebody
else, and at the same time perceive and organize intellectually
the material to be interpreted. The psychologic processes
involved in interpreting projective technics are practically
identical with those of the psychoanalyst’s listening to and
interpreting simultaneously the patient’s verbal material.

After long personal experience of interpreting, everybody
arrives at certain “shortcuts” in interpretation which he will
use if the case warrants. However, it is dangerous to attempt
to teach these shortcuts without detailed explanation of the
way of thinking which was involved in the original arrival
at those “shortcut” interpretations. Readymade formulas
can be of great help to those who know the qualitative and
dynamic interpretations of the mechanisms on which the
formulas were based, for whom, therefore, the formulas have
real meaning. But for those who do not have the broad
background of basic knowledge, the immediate offering of
shortcuts can have a stifling effect, because they might pre-
vent the acquirement of more basic understandings of the
dynamic processes involved.

In accordance with these considerations, now that we have
illustrated the use of shortcuts and formulas on one case,
we will proceed to the discussion of the “component ele-
ments,” which in our case are the eight factors of the test.
The ten profiles of subject F.T. (Figure 5) again will be
interpreted on the basis of specific constellations and changes
in the four vectors.

Chapter VI

Interpretation of the Eight
Factors

IT IS known by now that the test contains eight factors^
corresponding to eight different but interdependent psycho-
logic need-systems or drives. The eight factors are divided
into four vectors, each vector consisting of two factors. The
two factors of any given vector are always “closely related”
in the sense of referring to the same main area of the per-
sonality but at the same time representing opposite aspects
of that same area.

The following is a schematic presentation, for the purpose
only of offering a quick orientation, of the psychologic areas
corresponding to the four main vectors and the eight factors.

I. The sexual vector (S) consisting of the

a. h factor (represented by pictures of homosexuals) which
corresponds to the need for “passive” tenderness and yield-
ing; and the

b. s factor (represented by pictures of sadists) which cor-
responds to the need for physical activity and aggressive
manipulation of objects.

II. The Paroxysmal vector (P) describes the psychologic
area of emotional control in general. Its two component
factors are:

a. e (pictures of epileptics) factor describing the subject’s
way of dealing with aggressive, hostile, emotions; and

b. hy (pictures of hysterics) factor indicating the way the
person deals with his more tender emotions.

III. The Schizophrenic (Sch) vector which is usually
referred to as the ego vector because it reflects the structure

65

66 SZONDI TEST

and degree of rigidity or fluidity of the ego. It consists of the

a. k factor (pictures of catatonics), representing the need
to keep up the ego’s narcissistic integrity and separateness
from the environmental objects; and

b. the p factor (pictures of paranoid schizophrenics) repre-
senting the expansive needs of the ego, the tendency to fuse
into the objects of environment.

IV. The Circular vector, or rather Contact vector, as it
will be referred to from now on. This vector indicates the
. general area of the subject’s object relationships or in other
words his contact with reality. The two component factors
are:

a. the d factor (pictures of depressed patients) reflecting
the possessive, “anal” type of object relationship; and the

b. m factor (pictures of manic patients), indicating the
clinging “oral” type of object relationship.

In the following we are going to discuss the meaning of
the eight factors individually. In describing a factor I shall
try first to give a general psychodynamic interpretation of
the corresponding disease category which, of course, at the
same time will be the most general interpretation of the
factor itself. Without the assumption that these eight types
of mental disturbances imply well definable extreme mani-
festations of generally known psychologic mechanisms, the
functioning of the test would be inconceivable. We also
have to assume that the presence of these extreme and exag-
gerated psychologic drives are somehow expressed through
the corresponding photographs, and further, that the sub-
ject’s liking or rejection of the pictures is based on an
unconscious identification or counteridentification with the
processes depicted. Following a description of the general
meaning of the factors there will be always a short descrip-
tion of the interpretations respective to the plus, minus,
plus-minus or open positions of the same factor.

Chapter VII

The Sexual Vector

The h Factor

AS HAS been said the h factor represents the tender, more
yielding part of sexuality, in general those manifestations
of love which are usually in our culture referred to as
“feminine.” It contains little or no motoric energy. It is
related to the deep needs of the organism for sensual con-
tact through the sense of touch. It represents that aspect of
love where grabbing and actively manipulating the object
is absent. Instead there is a feeling of passively and sub-
missively wanting to have contact with the love-object.

To derive all these psychologic characteristics from the
actual stimulus material of pictures of passive male homo-
sexuals, is not quite easy. However, on the basis of psycho-
analytic experience with passive homosexual male patients,
one knows, that exactly those above features are the most
characteristic for the kind of sexual contact these patients
are craving for. (There are a number of psychoanalytic case
histories dealing with the above aspects of homosexuality.
To mention the most outstanding one, there is Freud’s study
on Leonardo da Vinci. Also Schilder discusses homo-
sexuality in the above sense. Healy, Bronner and Bowers’
Structure and Meaning of Psychoanalysis can serve as a
useful reference book for all the psychoanalytic concepts
which will be used in interpretation.)

What has to be emphasized from the point of view of the
interpretation of the h factor is that we believe that most
characteristic of passive male homosexuals is not their need

67

68

S20NDI TEST

to have actual sexual intercourse with persons of their own
sex, but more this general need for tender love. What these
patients really want is to be loved by somebody the way
they were loved by their mother. This is the need which
has not been satiated (either because of the original ‘‘con-
stitutional” extreme strength of this need, or because of
environmental frustrations) and therefore its dynamic
strength is determining the whole sexual orientation of even
the adult personality. Individuals fixed at this level of
development are not able to make the necessary transition
toward a more active “masculine” type of sexuality, because
this latter would imply a certain activity in regard to finding
and manipulating a love-object which is incompatible with
their childish need of wanting to be, rather, at the passive,
recipient end of such relationship.

This concept of homosexuality coincides more or less with
the concept of “Platonic” love, the classic Greek idea of
homosexuality (see Plato: Phaedros) which can be character-
ized as the prototype of passive longing for an object without
any release of tension because the motor activity necessary
to secure the object is lacking. As can be seen from the
general description of this factor, the basic need expressed
by the A is a longing for tender love, which by itself is not
only not pathologic but a necessary component factor of
every mature sexual drive, in male or female equally. It
becomes pathologic only when tlie total sexuality becomes
dominated by this one drive, in which case it can lead to
various symptom formations; among others it can lead to
homosexuality.

A quotation from Schilder (quoted on the basis of Healy,
Bronner and Bowers’ Structure and Meaning of Psycho-
analysis, page 401) is here in place: “It is one of the prin-
ciples of psychoanalysis that we never find mechanisms in
the neurosis which cannot also be found in the normal per-
son. The differences are merely quantitative. There is

SEXUAL VECTOR

69

nothing new in homosexuality, only something which exag-
gerates only what can also be found in the sex life of the
normal male and female. Activity and passivity are char-
acteristic of every human but ... we can therefore say that
we may understand the psychology of sex only if we consider
it under the double aspect of the desire to intrude and the
desire to be given to the body into which we intrude.
Intruding and being within, being strong and being weak,
these are the two poles of every sexual activity.”

This quotation from Schilder expresses not only the basic
meaning of the h factor but also that of the which will be
discussed later.

As to plus hj one can say that it implies an identification
with the needs described above. It means that the indi-
vidual accepts and contains these sensual longings, unrelated
to active moves toward satisfaction. Thus it indicates need
to be the recipient of love, which is more characteristic for
women than for men. Wherever it occurs it refers to a
feminine identification as a dynamic element of the psychic
structure. It refers specifically to nongenital need for love
and caressing in an infantile sense.

If this need is not too strong (not ^ or more choices in
plus h) and is well balanced by the choices in the other
factors, then there is no reason that it should cause some
pathology. If, however, the plus h is very strong (plus 5 , or
plus 5), then these characteristics of passive yearning are so
marked as to constitute real immaturity. In what way this
immaturity affects the total personality has to be decided
on the basis of the constellation of the other factors. In case
there are signs indicating that this strong craving for being-
loved as a child is frustrated, then we can expect serious
pathologic symptoms, even to the degree of actual antisocial
behavior. (This latter implies a plus or open s, a minus e,
and a minus in conjunction with the strong plus /z.)
Because plus h also has the meaning of feminine identifica-

SZONDI TEST

70

tion, it is more likely to cause neurotic symptoms in men
than in women. As far as the developmental stages are con-
cerned, plus h is characteristic for children, under the age
of puberty. The h starts to become negative during and
after puberty, for those individuals who give minus h at all,
because according to our data plus h is more frequent for
the general population than any other h constellation.

From the point of view of pathology, some aspects have
been mentioned already. Because of the frequency of the
plus h in the average population one cannot say that it is
“characteristic” for various psychoses as well as for anti-
social behavior, but this statement is valid the other way
around; namely, psychotics and antisocial individuals give
plus h more frequently than any other h constellation.

Another characteristic trend of the plus h is that it is given
more frequently by individuals whose work or occupation
does not involve “sublimation” in the psychoanalytic sense
of the word. However, this statement is true only if one
compares large groups of subjects from various occupational
levels. In studying individual cases, one comes across indi-
viduals many times who do have some sort of “highly cul-
tured” occupation, and give plus h nevertheless (especially
with minus s). These are individuals who choose some form
of work which involves the above described features of plus h,
namely work which involves personal care of others which
in turn implies getting personal affection from others in
return.

The constellation of minus h can be interpreted as the
counteridentification with whatever the h expresses in gen-
eral. It means that the individual does not want to accept
this need for personal tender affection but that does not
mean that actually such needs are lacking altogether. This
is particularly true if the minus h is strongly loaded.

As a general principle it has to be said here, while dis-
cussing the first minus constellation that denial of a certain

SEXUAL VECTOR

71

need does not mean lack of the need. On the contrary, it
might mean a reaction formation, -just because, under its
original intensity, the person had to resort to this particular
defense mechanism in order to save himself from otherwise
unavoidable frustrations.

Keeping this mechanism in mind, we can say that indi-
viduals with minus h deny their need for passivity, or
“femininity.** Instead of personalized afiPection, these indi-
viduals are likely to identify themselves with more abstract
forms of affection and love, such as: humanitarian love for
all mankind, or other “conceptual** forms of tenderness.
Many times minus h is obtained in people who on the sur-
face are cool in interpersonal contact but show warm social
or artistic attitudes.

Minus h is practically never found in children below
puberty and would be an undesirable symptom of pre-
cociousness in such cases. It can be found with relatively
highest frequency in a rather narrowly circumscribed group
of “intellectual** adults who tend to sublimate their need
for tender love into various forms of humanistic ideals and
culturally desirable activities.

Minus A is a counterindication for serious forms of pathol-
ogy such as psychoses or crime, but does not exclude various
forms of neuroses. The probability of neurosis depends
upon the intensity of the minus h. The stronger it is, the
more likely that it has to be interpreted as active repression
of its opposite, the plus h. It is a sign of masculine identifica-
tion in women, and therefore in women it is more likely
to cause neurotic symptoms, especially directly in the sphere
of sexuality. Sexual frigidity in women is often indicated
by strong minus h. The lack of even one balancing square
in the other direction, which has been discussed in a previous
chapter, has particular significance in those cases.

Plus-minus h indicates ambivalence in regard to this need
of “feminine** passive type of love. It is usually die expres-

SZONDI TEST

72

sion of ambivalent sexual identification and is subjectively
experienced as conflict.- Genetically, it refers often to an
unresolved Oedipal conflict and is associated with unsatis-
factory masculine or feminine identification. It can be
expected in children before the resolution of the Oedipal
conflict and then it appears again with relatively high fre-
quency around puberty and in young adolescents. It is a
symptomatic reaction for people with bisexual orientation
and is given frequently by compulsion neurotics.

Open h is 2L sign that the need for being the passive
recipient of love is ‘lived out” at the time being. This state
of lack of tension in this area is seen either in small children
whose need for tender love can be lived out in actuality,
or else in infantile adults who succeeded in creating a situa-
tion where they are loved and pampered as a child. It can
be obtained from impotent men or overt passive male homo-
sexuals. In case of female homosexuals it still refers to the
passive type. It can be given by women who have an
extremely strong attachment to their mother, and who con-
sequently easily attach themselves in a submissive, dependent
manner to various “mother images.*’ Whenever it is given
consistently in a series it is an indication of low sexual
energy. Open h can appear temporarily after sexual inter-
course or after masturbation. In certain configurations,
determined by the rest of the factors, open h can appear in
individuals who are well able to sublimate intellectually,
without being disturbed by sexual tension.

On tlie basis of what has been said about the meaning
of changes in Chapter V, it follows that the fewer the
changes in the direction of the h factor within a series of
ten profiles, the more the probability that there are no really
pathologic symptoms in this area. On the other hand,
frequent changes of direction indicate the presence of a
pathologic process in the sphere of sexuality. Frequent

SEXUAL VECTOR 73

changes in the h, involving occasional ‘'open'" reactions, are
characteristic for manifest homosexuals.

This is a statement which holds actually for each factor.
The most characteristic reaction for patients with identical
diagnosis with the particular stimulus pictures of the given
factor is that the greatest variability of reactions is found in
the factor corresponding to their own diagnosis.

The % Factor

The s factor has to be interpreted as corresponding to
the psychological dimension active-passive. The s strongly
refers to muscular energy and motoric tension and in this
way relates to the action of the organism on its environment.
As this tension becomes stronger, the possibility of destruc-
tive or sadistic behavior becomes increasingly likely. That
is the reason why photographs of actual sadists can be used
as “measuring unit’’ to indicate activity level in general.
Experience with the Szondi test has shown the correctness
of the assumption of linking the concept of motor activity
with that of aggression. Similar conclusions concerning the
relationship between aggression and general motor drive
were reached by Bender and Schilder (Schilder, P. and
Bender, L.: Aggressiveness in Children II. Genet. Psychol.
Monog. 1936, 18, No. 5, 6, 410-525) and Caille (Caille, R. K.:
Resistant Behavior of Preschool Children. Child Dev.
Monog., 1933, No. 1 1, pp. 142). In the sphere of sex, s repre-
sents the opposite pole to h in the same sense as indicated
by the quotation by Schilder (pp. 68-69), s corresponding
to the need to “intrude” and to be strong, while h corre-
sponds to the need to be “weak.” In other words s refers
to the more active “masculine” aspect of sexuality, while h
refers to the “feminine” one.

The plus s means that the person identifies himself with
this outwardly directed tension in the activity area. The
plus s, depending on its intensity (loading), and the constella-

SZONDI TEST

74

tions of the other factors, indicates a generally high degree
of physical activity level, or else a tendency for uninhibited
aggressive manifestations. Because plus s is related to active
manipulation of environmental objects ^ one can also relate
it to the concept, usually loosely used, of extroversion,
although I prefer rather to draw the parallel between plus s,
and what Goldstein calls '"concrete behavior.” Again,
because of its relatedness to physical activity, it can be called
a predominantly "masculine” reaction. From the point of
view of sexuality it means an active going after the love
object and the need to be the initiator in respect to every
interpersonal relationship. Generally for individuals with
a constant plus s it is characteristic to face and fight reality,
rather than to withdraw into themselves; or in psychoanalytic
terms: they are more inclined to make alloplastic than auto-
plastic adaptation. (Terms originated by Ferenczi.) It is
also known that the excess of the latter type of "adaptation”
is characteristic for neurotics, while the former one is char-
acteristic for impulsive characters and criminals. (Naturally
both types of adaptation have their wide range of normal
variations; it is easier to characterize a tendency by its
extreme forms of manifestation.)

Plus s is the characteristic reaction of children. However,
similarly to the plus the plus s is the most frequent s con-
stellation in the general population at large. It is the usual
reaction of people with little intellectual interest, which,
however, does not mean that plus s reaction is never obtained
from highly cultured intellectuals. Yet, even in those cases
the general interpretation of plus 5 is valid, and an intel-
lectual activity or profession, if associated with plus has a
different meaning from the point of view of the total per-
sonality than it does, for instance, in a person with minus s.
In case of plus s it is more likely that intellectual interest
is based on interest of "real” things; in other words, it will
involve more empirical experimentation and actual physical

SEXUAL VECTOR

75

activity, than purely speculative or contemplative type of
intellectual interest. Taking an example from the field of
art, it has been found that plus s is much more common
among sculptors and next to sculptors in painters than among
musicians (composers or performers) and writers, in the last
group pure plus s being practically nonexistent. (Deri,
Susan K.: The Szondi test applied to the study of various
groups of artists and musicians. Unpublished study.) The
relation of plus s to the tendency to manipulate actual objects
of the environment (sculpting) as against manipulating
purely symbolic material (tones or word symbols) came out
nicely in the above study.

The general frequency of plus s decreases in adults and
appears again in high frequency in old age, where it refers
to ‘‘concrete behavior’* in general.

The pathologic significance of plus s (as of any other
factor’s) depends partly upon its loading, partly upon the
configuration of the whole profile into which the plus s is
embedded.

Its most direct pathologic significance relates to antisocial
behavior. This can be the case if plus s has a loading of five
or six and is associated with a minus e and miritis m and,
most of the time, plus or open d,

Psychotics also give plus s frequently, especially if they
have symptoms of hallucination.

In regard to neurosis, plus s has special diagnostic sig-
nificance if encountered in women, because it is always a
sign for masculine identification. This “masculine” trend
in women can be either sublimated in work or be the source
of difficulties in the sphere of sexuality (or both); in extreme
cases it can lead to active homosexuality in women.

Minus s constellation means tension in tlie area of aggres-
sion but not accepted by the person. The consequence is
that in such cases the primarily outward directed motor
energy will be transformed into more intellectual energy.

SZONDI TEST

76

aiming at the manipulation of concepts rather than manipu-
lating concrete objects of the environment. To use Gold-
stein’s term again, minus s can be related to “abstract
behavior.”

Minus s is indication of a low lovel of physical activity
but is often associated with intellectual activity; for example,
in scientific work as a certain “civilizing” drive to conquer
nature and control remote and abstract forces. Depending
on its intensity it might mean simply a nonaggressive behav-
ior (for instance in a constellation of * or ^ ); or if minus
s is strongly loaded (3,5, etc.) we have to think of a moral
masochistic character and feelings of inefficiency. Minus s
therefore gives us some information about the superego
structure of an individual without, however, trying to equate
minus s with the psychoanalytic concept of superego. We
will see that there will be other factors which in some con-
stellations are related to the strength of the superego. In
comparing minus s with plus $ one can say that individuals
with stable minus s, in case of conflict, have rather the tend-
ency for withdrawing, than fighting reality. They are more
inclined for autoplastic than for alloplastic adaptation (in
contrast to plus s), which also implies that they are more
likely to have neurotic symptoms than to develop antisocial
behavior. As a matter of fact, minus s is one of the few
“single” signs which by itself can be taken as a counterindica-
tion against serious antisocial activity.

Minus s is practically never encountered in children below
the age of ten, but in the few cases when this constellation
is found in young children, it is a sign for a precocious
development of the superego, with ensuing guilt feelings.
These are the children who are “too” good and try too hard
to please the grown-ups.

Around puberty the appearance of minus s is more fre-
quent, but actually it is a typically “adult” reaction (which
by no means should be understood as meaning that minus s

SEXUAL VECTOR

77

is characteristic for the ‘‘typicaF’ adult). Actually, even in
adults minus s is not very frequent because it implies certain
ability to sublimate aggression which is not common in the
so-called ‘‘average” man. Generally speaking, minus s is
more common in women than in men, and in case we see it
in men it has to be interpreted as some lack of identification
with the “masculine” role, which in our culture implies
more acceptance of physical activity and aggression. How-
ever, minus s is rather common in so-called “intellectual”
men, whose work involves dealing with concepts and other
symbolic forms rather than working with material objects.
The occurrence of minus s in groups of unskilled workers,
or even in skilled labor, is negligible. However, it is not
infrequent in certain “nonintellectual” occupations; namely,
in those which involve the serving or “waiting on” other
people (i.e., department store salesmen, waiters, male beauty
shop operators, etc.).

The pathologic significance of minus 5, as has been men-
tioned already, is mostly in regard to neurosis, which depends
on the intensity of minus s and other factorial correlations
in the profile. Minus s can be obtained in any form of
neurosis which is described in Freud’s ''Civilization and Its
Discontents” since the basic source of neurosis in such cases
is the repressed aggression. Accordingly, neurotic traits cor-
responding to minus s can be pathologic inefficiency, diffi-
culties in work, masochistic traits, irritability because of
being oversensitive to real or imagined “insults.” Because
of this paranoid trend, minus s in some cases can result in
ideas of reference or other forms of paranoid delusions. (In
case of real paranoids, minus s is associated with plus h and
a changing p.) Minus s is also a characteristic sign of depres-
sion, again because of the special significance of repressed
aggression in this particular form of neurosis or psychosis.
If encountered in men, minus s can be the source of diffi-
culties in heterosexual adjustment. It can — but does not

SZONDI TEST

78

necessarily — ^mean, homosexuality. In many cases the sex
of the love object is not inverted but only the act which is
needed for sexual satisfaction shows signs of inversion; i.e.,
the man wants to be the passive and submissive partner
in the sex act as well as in other aspects of the marriage. The
probable solution is that a man with minus s will be attracted
to a woman with tendency for plus s, in which case “marital
adjustment” is well conceivable. Whether or not such cases
can be called “latent homosexuals,” depends on the defini-
tion of “latent homosexuality,” which concept — ^at present —
is far from being unequivocally defined.

Plus-minus s refers to an ambivalent way of handling
aggression. Similarly to the plus-minus it also means
ambivalence in regard to masculine or feminine identifica-
tion, and — ^as in the case of any factorial ambivalence — both
components are actually experienced as such. However, in
the case of the s factor, satisfactory synthesis, or sublimation
of the two opposing tendencies seems to be more feasible
than in the case of h, probably because the basic meaning of
the s is activity as such, which — ^almost by definition — ^lends
itself easily to a number of various discharge possibilities.
The manifold possibilities for “concrete” as well as “abstract”
behavior in any one person’s life, offers enough favorable
solutions for plus-minus s^ without the necessity of pathologic
symptoms.

Certain types of scientific as well as artistic sublimation
seems to be appropriate discharge of the “double” tension
caused by the plus-minus s. Even in those cases where the
main field of sublimation is not art, the type of work or
hobby of individuals with plus-minus s, is likely to have a
tinge of exhibitionism. In general they are attracted by
“unusual” fields of activity.

The appearance of plus-minus s starts about the age of
puberty and becomes more frequent during adolescence,
when it refers to the usual vacillation in regard to con-

SEXUAL VECTOR

79

trolling aggression and identifying oneself with a masculine
role. It also coincides with the period of almost “physio-
logic” homosexual crushes in both sexes.

As mentioned before, plus-minus s can also occur in adults
— ^although it is an infrequent s constellation — ^and even
adults with ambivalent s have something of an adolescent
quality in their personality.

In respect to pathologic symptoms, it can occur in people
with sado-masochistic tendencies, which in turn can be the
source of a number of neurotic symptoms. It can occur in
cases of homosexuality or other forms of sexual perversions,
if besides the plus-minus direction the s factor also shows
a tendency for changing several times within a series of ten
profiles.

Among neurotic symptoms, hypochondriac anxiety and
compulsive symptoms are most common with ambivalent s.
It is unusual to find this constellation in manifest psychotics;
it can be rather interpreted as a counterindication for real
psychosis in case the differentiation between prepsychosis
and psychosis is doubtful.

Open s is an indication for continuous discharge in the
area of activity or aggression. By all means it is an active ^
picture, the quality of which depends on other factors. It
can be seen in efficient behavior, in “busy” people, in people
who sublimate their aggression in scientific work successfully
(minus h, open s); or else in actively antisocial individuals
(plus hj open minus m). Many times the interpretation
from the point of view of observable behavior is similar to
that of plus 5. It differs from plus s primarily, in the lack
of tension which results from continuous discharge, but
which is hard to differentiate from active behavior with
residual tension.

It is found in very young children (three and four years
old) as well as in any other age group, since discharge of
activity as such is not particularly characteristic for any age.

8o

SZONDI TEST

However, the combination of other factors in conjunction
with open s varies with age.

Open 5 is a frequent constellation in many forms of
psychopathology. It is a characteristic sign for compulsion
neurotics (in conjunction with open d) who are able to release
their tension in respect to aggression, through their com-
pulsive symptoms. It is also common in motorically excited
and excitable psycho tics (in conjunction with plus h). Open
Sj besides strong plus is the most frequent s picture of
active criminals (in which case it goes with minus m).

Thus we finish the discussion of the h and s factor sepa-
rately, in all the four directions. The next step would be the
discussion of the various combinations of these two factors.
Since each vector is composed of two factors and each factor
can occur in either of the four basic directions (plus, minus,
plus-minus and open) the number of possible vectorial varia-
tions of the combination of both factors, is sixteen. Discus-
sion of all the sixteen variations for the four vectors, would
be beyond the scope of this introductory book. For respec-
tive tables which indicate the main characteristic features
and percentile distribution of the sixteen variations of the
four vectors in the various diagnostic and age groups, I
refer to Szondi's Experimentelle Triebdiagnostik, Psycho-
diagnostik Tables II, III, IV and V, in the appendix.

In the following, I shall give a brief description of the
most important combinations of the h and s factors.

Open h with open s

There is little or no sexual tension. It might indicate:
(a) that sexual tension has been discharged recently (for
example through sexual intercourse, or masturbation, or
homosexual activity); (b) it might indicate fixation on an
infantile level of sexuality, or (c) it might indicate organic
or “constitutionar* (endocrinological) reasons for lack of
sexual tension.

SEXUAL VECTOR

8l

It is often found in heterosexually immature adults, who
were never really “weaned” from their parents and who
construct their lives in a way that they can either stay living
in the parents' house or find another “parent” group whom
they can join and with whom they can live (priests, nuns).

Plus h with plus s

This is the most frequent of all the vectorial constellations
in the S vector (30%). It represents a fusion and an accept-
ance of the two opposing needs corresponding to h and s.
Thus in many cases it is a healthy picture of unrepressed
sexuality. It is the usual sexual constellation of the so-called
“average” adult, by which is meant a person with a rela-
tively simple ego structure and no particular needs for
sublimation. It is a common S vectorial picture in lower
occupational levels. The sex act in such cases is usually
more important than the careful search for a specific love-
object. It is more common in men than in women.

It is characteristic for people who are interested in the
realistic and materialistic aspects of life. From this it follows
that it is a usual picture of childhood.

If either factor is more than four plus, then that implies
so much activity ready to be discharged and outwardly
directed, that antisocial behavior may result. Accordingly
plus h, plus s is also common among criminals (with minus e
and minus m).

In case there are other signs of an effective superego, or
else of repressive tendencies within the ego, then the sexual
tension caused by plus h, plus s might be the cause for “drive-
anxiety” (plus hj plus s^ minus e, minus hy, minus k). Other-
wise it is rather a counterindication in regard to neurosis.

Among psychoses it is most frequently found in mania,
hypomanic excitement, or in epilepsy, all of these diseases
being characterized by strong need for motor discharge.

Another pathologic group for which a high plus h and

82

SZONDI TEST

a high plus s (at least plus 5 in each) is characteristic, are
feeble minded children who — ^we know from other investi-
gations — (Goldstein, Werner) live one ‘‘concrete” level to
a pathologic extent.

Minus h with minus s

This is the only other s vectorial constellation which rep-
resents fusion between the two basic component needs (femi-
nine tenderness and masculine aggression) of sexuality.
However, in spite of this successful amalgamation, neither
of the two basic drives is accepted in an unmodified form.
The amalgamation usually indicates an individual who is
inclined rather to sublimate his sexual energy than to dis-
charge it easily on a primarily sexual level. Szondi found
that in his “general population,” which consisted of 4117
individuals, only 5.5 per cent yielded minus h and minus s
in tlic S vector. The percentage of minus h, minus s^
increases consistently if we follow occupational levels from
unskilled labor (where this constellation is nonexistent) to
professions involving highly conceptual operations. Minus h,
minus s is relatively most common in writers, musicians,
psychologists, literary and art critics, etc., or in those devoted
to intellectual or artistic creations or productions. This
S vectorial constellation appears usually in conjunction with
complex ego structures, which will be discussed in connec-
tion with the Sch vector. In such combinations, the minus h,
minus s usually indicates successful sublimation so that —
although it always implies a tendency to intellectualize needs
which are basically of sexual origin — ^it does not necessarily
indicate neurotic repression. The sexuality of such indi-
viduals can be characterized as displaying a high frustration
tolerance, the specific love-object being more important than
the act.

If, however, minus h, minus s are strongly loaded (at least
one of the two factors being minus five) neurotic repression

S£5tUAL VECTO]^

83

of sexual needs is indicated. Thus, this S vectorial con-
stellation is found in cases of sexual frigidity in women, or
of lowered potency, or impotence, in men. This constella-
tion also can be associated with hysteroid symptoms in
both sexes.

The possibility of overt psychoses or antisocial acts, how-
ever, is practically ruled out by this one S vectorial picture.

The constellation is one of the rare “signs’" in the Szondi
Test which determines the general personality structure
to such a high degree that certain statements about the basic
‘"humanistic'" and socially positive attitude of the subject
do not have to be modified, whatever constellations are
found in the remaining six factors. Thus, in discussion
of the remaining factors, whenever it is mentioned that a
given factorial constellation is highly correlated to psychoses
or anti-social behavior, it should be understood with the
qualification: unless it occurs with minus h, minus s in the
S vector.

From the characterization described above, it follows that
minus minus s is a typically adult configuration, rarely
obtained in childhood or senility. Apparently, the psychic
energy of young adults (late adolescence) or adults is needed
to keep up the complex mechanisms implied in this
constellation.

Plus h with minus s

Characteristic of plus h, minus s — ^as well as of the reverse
(minus h, plus s) — S vectorial constellation is a dissociation
of the two above discussed component needs of sexuality.
That such a dissociation of the two related drives in one
main area is less desirable from the point of view of psy-
chologic balance in that area than a fusion of the two drives
has been discussed in Chapter V. However, there are pos-
sible solutions within the range of “normal” manifestations
for these drive constellations, although the probability for

SZONDI TEST

84

disturbances in the primarily sexual sphere is greater in
the “dissociated” constellations, than it is in the previously
discussed “amalgamated” sexual pictures of the plus h, plus s
and the minus minus s type.

The plus h, minus s configuration points to acceptance
of the need for tenderness, with simultaneous rejection of
the need for uninhibited motor discharge, or aggressive
manipulation of concrete objects. Thus, it is the picture
of a basically dependent, submissive individual of low need
for physical activity. It suggests sensitivity, and the tendency
to detach oneself from the material, physically tangible
aspects of reality, with proportionately increased interest
in the conceptual, symbolic representation of outside as well
as inside reality.

In conjunction with constellations in other factors indi-
cating good possibility for sublimation, the above described
characteristics of plus h, minus 5, can appear in a variety
of socially positive or sublimated manifestations. In men,
this is achieved mainly by choice of intellectual or artistic
professions of the type described previously under minus s,
which combine intellectual activity and aggression with
“serving” humanity. The less intellectual “serving” occu-
pations also go frequently with plus h, minus 5.

From the point of view of pathology, plus minus s is
more significant in men than in women. Because of the
basically submissive, sensitive character of this constellation,
it frequently indicates latent passive homosexual tendencies
in men. As mentioned before, this does not necessarily take
the form of choosing a love object of the same sex, but often
manifests itself, in spite of heterosexual object choice, in
the choice of a domineering, aggressive partner with whom
the man can play the submissive role. In case the plus
direction of the h changes within a series of ten profiles,
with an occasional “draining” (open) of the hy but with

SEXUAL VECTOR 85

the s remaining minus, one can think of manifest
homosexuality.

If the minus s is strongly loaded (four choices or more),
especially if it shows the tendency of becoming increasingly
loaded in the minus direction during a series of ten profiles,
then the normal “sensitivity” might have increased to para-
noic symptoms, particularly if there are simultaneously
changes in the p factor.

Plus minus s is also found in cases of neurotic or psy-
chotic depression, with the exception of the form of agitated
depression. Similarly, it can occur in compulsion neurosis,
since all these disease entities are dynamically characterized
by the repression of overt aggressiveness. As a counterpart,
it can be mentioned that plus h, minus s is counterindication
for real epilepsy (great motoric seizures) and manic psychosis.

In regard to age distribution, one can say that this S vector
constellation is rare in childhood, is relatively frequent in
adolescents and in adults, and most frequent in old age.

Minus h with plus s

This is the other typical S vectorial constellation in which
the “feminine” and “masculine” components of sexuality
are not integrated.

It is given by people who repress their need for tender-
ness, and identify themselves with physically active or aggres-
sive behavior. Thus, it is a typically “masculine” pattern,
given by physically active men or masculine women.

These tendencies can be sublimated in professions involv-
ing active manipulation of the environment, and because
of the minus h, it is likely that this drive for activity will
take a cultured form. Occupations involving physical
activity (for example surgery, electrical engineering, etc.)
or organizational work (examples: personnel work, group
work, social work, etc.) are usual and good forms of subli-
mation for individuals witli minus h, plus s.

86

SZONDI TEST

This constellation has special pathodiagnostic significance
in women because o£ the masculine identification implied.
Actual female homosexuality of the aggressive type is a
possibility, but again not a necessary consequence of this
S vectorial configuration. The statement, however, that
women with minus A, plus s always tend to '‘take charge
of situations” in marriage as well as in other interpersonal
relationships, is true in every case. The positive channeli-
zations for this tendency have been mentioned above.

In other instances, when the presence of minus A, plus s
indicates the existence of domineering and aggressive drives
but at the same time other factors (minus k) indicate the
presence of repressive tendencies in the ego, the outcome of
the conflicting forces is likely to result in symptoms of con-
version hysteria.

This S vectorial constellation is most frequent in adoles-
cent boys, where it corresponds to the exaggerated emphasis
of “masculinity.” Incidentally, this interpretation is often
valid for minus hj plus s in cases of adult men, too.

In adults it is less frequent than in adolescents and it
practically disappears in old age.

Some children give it near the final stage of the Oedi-
pal phase, when identification with the “strong” father sets
in. This developmental stage is naturally desirable for
boys, but when it occurs in girls, it leads to the above
described masculine identification with all its consequences
in women.

Now that we have discussed those five constellations of the
A and s factors which correspond to the five most clear-cut
personality characterizations which can be interpreted on
the basis of the S vector, we will turn to the interpretation
of the factors in the P vector.

It is hoped that the remaining eleven S vectorial con-
figurations can be more or less understood on the basis of
the foregoing analysis. The five “classes” of the S vector

SEXUAL VECTOR

87

discussed above can be considered as “basic” constellations,
from which the interpretation of the other eleven “classes”
can be derived by means of appropriate combination of the
respective parts of “basic” interpretations. For example, the
constellation of plus-minus h with plus s, can be interpreted
on the basis of combining the characterization of plus h,
plus s with that of minus h, plus s. In a similar manner,
one can derive the rest of the S vectorial constellations. The
complete discussion of all the sixteen variations of the four
vectors, sixty-four vectorial pictures altogether, would be
beyond the scope of a manual, which bears in the title the
word “introduction.”

Chapter VIII

The Paroxysmal Vector

The concept of paroxysmality is less known and less used
generally in psychology and in psychoanalysis than that of
sexuality. In medical science, the adjective “paroxysmal” is
used to describe certain emotional or physiologic processes
which follow a specific pattern. This is a pattern of periodic
cally recurring accumulation of energy which reaches a cli-
max, then suddenly discharges. Graphically, there is a
repeated, wave-like rise in tension to a culminating point,
followed by a plunge to a point nearly zero. Prototypical of
paroxysmal discharge is the gradual approach and sudden
outbreak of an epileptic seizure.

The e Factor

The interpretation of the e factor is centered in this
paroxysmal storing up and sudden release of energy. In the
Szondi test, epilepsy is interpreted psychologically as the
purest manifestation of aggressive outburst. This conception
of epilepsy coincides with that of Freud as it is expressed in
his “Beyond the Pleasure Principle.” *

The epileptic’s mounting aggressiveness, accompanying
the approach of seizure, is well known to all clinicians deal-
ing with epileptic patients. There is an increasing irritabil-
ity and motor restlessness which sometimes reaches a point
at which epileptics feel a compulsion to injure people in
their environment. This period of aggressiveness is termi-
nated by the actual attack, which is followed by coma. The
next stage comprises the so-called inter-paroxysmal period,
characterized by the epileptic’s strict emotional control of

* Freud, Sigmund; Beyond the Pleasure Principle. London, Int.
Psa. Press, igss.

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR 89

his aggressive tendencies. The "'e*' photographs in the test
are portraits of epileptic patients, in this controlled inter-
paroxysmal period. In this stage, the epileptic patients are
overly-good, religious, and helpful. The term “morbus sacer,”
denoting epilepsy in the old European textbooks of psy-
chiatry, intends to express just this aspect of the epileptic
character. Again, clinicians who have had experience with
epileptic patients know very well that the kindness and help-
fulness of epileptics has something of a “sticky” and forced
quality. One can almost sense the degree of energy spent on
retention of this strict emotional control which probably
serves the same dynamic purpose as a reaction formation.
The Rorschach records of epileptics in the seizure-free
period show, usually, all the characteristics described above.
Rorschach himself mentions that epileptic subjects imply
value judgments in their answers and in their preoccupation
with details and symmetry of the blots.’* The predominance
of stereotypy and perseveration has been observed by prac-
tically all Rorschach workers studying the records of epilep-
tic subjects.f

All these details need mention because interpretation of
the e factor is based completely on the assumption that the e
factor relates to the control and discharge of aggressive energy
and, therefore, reflects those aspects of the personality which
are closely bound to the development of the superego.

Plus e

The plus e constellation results from the subject’s identi-
fication of himself with portraits supposedly expressing strict
control over the discharge of rough, aggressive feelings. Thus,
plus e is in some ways the counterpart of minus s as indication
of a dynamically active superego, which implies that it is
associated with people who are concerned with questions

* Rorschach, Hermann: Psychodiagnostik. Bern, Hans Huber, 1937.

tKlopfer, Bruno and Kelley, Douglas: The Rorschach Technique.
Yonkers, World Book Co., 194^.

SZONDl TEST

9 ^

about “good” and “bad” in general. In other words, plus e
is a sign of ethical control. More than three plus e choices
suggest a reactive, compulsive control which is likely to
accompany temporary inconsistencies in behavior. Indi-
viduals with strong and consistent plus e are often moralistic,
critical, and are likely to suffer guilt feelings resulting from
aggressive urges which never found their way to being car-
ried out in reality. The control of plus e seems to insure
that whatever antisocial urges the subject experiences will
not be transmitted into motor activity. Even though both
minus s and plus e reactions are indications of control over
agression, they seem to function in slightly different layers
of the personality. In the case of minus s, the word “control”
is not even quite appropriate; rather, one may discuss a
transformation of outward-directed aggression into physically
passive behavior, with simultaneous manifestations of sub-
limated or introverted aggression. In topological terms one
could say that the minus s reaction indicates that a transfor-
mation has taken place within the inner-personal region cor-
responding to aggression, while in the case of the plus e
reaction, the control function can be localized rather on the
boundary of the motoric region surrounding the personality.
From the psychoanalytic point of view, both can be consid-
ered as different aspects of the superego function. When
the plus e is loaded, or when there are other components
in the profile indicating repression, it can be regarded as a
jsign of compulsion neurosis. In the Szondi test, the plus e
! constellation is, again, one of the few constellations which
I by itself can be interpreted as a counterindication of anti-
Isocial, criminal activity.

The plus e constellation is rarely obtained in children.
Its frequency increases gradually from puberty on, and
reaches its maximum (about forty per cent of the population)
in adulthood, between the ages of twenty and forty. The

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR 9I

frequency of the plus e constellation decreases again with old
age.

In clinically syinptomless adults, the plus e is usually corre-
lated with a rather high cultural level, and is found most
frequently in occupations and professions which are con-
cerned primarily with helping others. In pathology, the plus
e is characteristic of compulsion neurosis and conversion
hysteria. The theory described above, which regards the
plus e as a restrictive control on the boundary of the motoric
region, is supported by these data (Szondi: Experimentelle
Triebdiagnostik Psychodiagnostic Table XXIV). The plus e
is also associated relatively frequently with schizophrenics,
an empirical finding for which the psychodynamic rationale
cannot easily be stated. It might be attributed to the fact that
such a par excellence ego-disturbance as schizophrenia is
correlated with inhibition in regard to discharging emotions
freely through the motoric system. One could even hypothe-
size a causal relationship between the two phenomena. The
fact that the plus e constellation is most uncommon in manic-
depressive manic psychosis, which is prototypical, among
psychotic disturbances, of motorically active object-directed
symptomatology, is in line with the “motor” hypothesis in
the interpretation of Ae e factor.

In addition to throwing light on the meaning of a specific
factor, the above considerations illustrate how careful study
of various data of the test can contribute to the understand-
ing of psychodynamics underlying various neuroses and psy-
choses. Because the Szondi test can be compared to an octago-
nal gauge which permits the psychologist to measure,
through eight planes, the reactions of clinically symptomless,
neurotic, psychotic, and antisocial subjects alike, it is probably
the instrument most suited to make visible the deep psycho-
dynamic mechanisms which form the basis of such common
diagnostic labels as schizophrenia, mania, etc. Following dis-

SZONDI TEST

coveries of workers in psychoanalysis, the use of a tangible
testing instrument is of the greatest importance for further
research. And, of course, progress would involve the setting
up of experiments which finally can prove or disprove the
hypotheses reached on the basis of the Szondi test.

I have inserted these observations for the following rea-
son. Ever since I made my first study on schizophrenics in
1939, the frequency of the plus e constellation in this group
has been puzzling to me, since I could not see the dynamic
connection between the two. If there were really truth in
the hypothesis that the plus e constellation in schizophrenia
expresses the disability of discharging violent emotions, goals
for further research, as well as some hints for therapy, could
be developed.

Before going on to the discussion of the minus e constel-
lation, I am going to quote a legend from the Talmud which
I found in Werner Wolff’s The Expression of Personality *
in the chapter in which he discussed difficulties in judging
personality from the physiognomy. The quotation gives a
perfect description of the dynamic meaning of the plus e
constellation.

The King of Arabistan, who had heard of the miracles of Moses,
wanted a portrait of Moses, and for this purpose sent his best painter
to him. When the King got the painting he gathered together his
physiognomists and asked them to tell him the character of this man
and to explain to him the source of Moses' magic power. ‘‘Your
Majesty," answered the sages, “this portrait shows a man who has all
the vices existing in the world; he is brutal, proud, greedy, and
ambitious.”

“That must be wrong,” shouted the King. “This cannot be the
character of that man who performed the greatest miracles in the
world; either the painter made a false portrait or the physiognomists
are worthless men.”

There began a violent dispute between the painter and the sages.
Finally the King decided to seek his information from Moses himself
and he set off to visit him. When the King stood before Moses he
became convinced that the painter had made a faultless portrait. He

* Wolff, Werner: The Expression of Personality. Harper Bros.
New York, London, 1943.

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR 93

told Moses of the dispute and added: “Now I am convinced that there
is no such thing as a science of physiognomy.”

“There is such a science/’ answered Moses. “Both the painter and
the sages are right. I was marked by nature with all the vices the
physiognomists spoke of. But I struggled with all these evil forces
until I suppressed them in myself, and all forces opposite to them
became my second nature. This battle gave me my power.”

Minus e

The interpretation of the minus e constellation already
has been implied to a great extent. It signifies rejection of
stimulus material supposedly expressing strong control over
emotional outbursts. Therefore the minus e constellation
is obtained from people who are likely to have aggressive
outbursts. The correlation of negative e with plus s is obvi-
ous. The plus s constellation gives information about the
state of tension resulting from the need for aggression felt
by a subject, while the minus e constellation shows how
this need is handled. The “minus e state’* is experienced
by the subject as strong emotional tension with no positive
mechanisms of control. Such a tense state is likely to result
in some kind of sudden emotional release, since the minus e
constellation represents a state of unstable emotional equilib-
rium, in which people usually do not remain for long
periods of time. These changes are indicated on the test
by the frequency with which minus e changes into open e.
Individuals for whom minus e is characteristic are usually
impulsive; ethical problems are not of primary importance,
to them, and generally they are characterized by a lax super-
ego. (As will be seen later, this statement needs some quali-
fication, depending on the constellation of the hy.) Invariably,
a constant minus e results in a general restlessness and a
tendency to act out id impulses spontaneously.

The age distribution associated with the minus e follows
logically from the general character of this constellation.
It is most frequently given by small children, and gradually
decreases through puberty to the fifty year age group, from

SZONDI TEST

94

which it increases again until, near the seventy year age group,
it reaches the frequency with which it is found in the young
children (about forty-two per cent). This curve represents
the well known fact that emotional control is a characteris-
tic of adulthood.

The pathodiagnostic significance of the minus e consists
mostly in indication of the potential danger of a violent emo-
tional outburst. Depending on the loadedness of the minus
and on its relation to the total configuration, emotional out-
bursts may or may not result in antisocial acts. In children, the
minus e constellation is often an indication of an approaching
temper tantrum. Similarly, the approach of a real epileptic
seizure is also often indicated by an increasingly loaded minus
e within the series of ten profiles, which drains suddenly
immediately after seizure.

The minus e constellation is a counterindication of com-
pulsion neurosis. More frequently than it can be found in
any other pathologic groups, minus e is found in antisocial
individuals of all kinds, from vagabonds to murderers. The
minus e constellation is one of the three basic constituents
of the typically antisocial syndrome, the other two being
plus s and minus m. Of course, if the syndrome is not com-
plete, one has no right to predict antisocial behavior. In the
clinically healthy population the minus e is usually found in
lower occupational levels involving physical labor. In cases
in which it occurs in individuals of higher professional level,
it still indicates a certain aggressiveness in the character.

Plus-minus e

Similarly to the plus-minus s^ the plus-minus e constella-
tion indicates ambivalence in the subject’s way of handling
aggression. This ambivalence is experienced subjectively
as an emotional conflict and is likely to lead to periodic out-
bursts, though not usually to the antisocial outbursts associ-
ated with minus e. Individuals with plus-minus e do have

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR

95

a strongly functioning superego, but their superego is not
well integrated into the total personality. Rather, it is
experienced as an independent foreign agent which tries to
exert power over the actions of the organism. It corresponds
somewhat to the pseudo superego referred to by some psy-
choanalysts. The behavior of such subjects might be over-
righteous and at times inconsistent, leading to guilt feelings.

The fact that the most characteristic pathologic symptoms
accompanying the plus-minus e constellation are compulsion
neurosis and stuttering is in accordance with the above
dynamic consideration. This e constellation is rarely found
in cases of manifest psychoses of any kind. It appears that
the subjectively experienced emotional ambivalence implied
in this constellation is not compatible with actual psychotic
states.

The plus-minus e constellation is not characteristic for any
one age group. From young childhood to the twenty year
age group, the frequency of the plus-minus e does not show
much variability, ranging from fifteen to seventeen per cent.
Then there is a drop to about nine to ten per cent between
the twenty and forty year age groups, followed by a gradual
increase to fourteen per cent. There is a second, sharp drop
in old age.

Open e

The open e constellation indicates that there is no tension
in this area of emotional control, which means simply that
emotions can be discharged readily. As in all other open
factors, there is an important diflEerence between its occur-
rence as a constant pattern and its occurrence as the result of
a periodic, sudden draining of the factor.

If open e is constant, steady mechanisms of discharge are
available. Open e by itself does not indicate, of course,
whether this steady discharge is the result of healthy or neu-
rotic mechanisms; that is, whether it indicates that small

SZONDI TEST

96

amounts of aggression are discharged readily before accumu-
lation induces strong emotional tension, or whether a steady
symptom, for example, a psychosomatic symptom formation,
achieves the constant discharge. Which one of these two
possibilities is responsible for the open e cannot be decided
without consideration of the complete test profile, or prefer-
ably, consideration of the complete test series. A hint aiding
differentiation between healthy and neurotic discharge lies
in the formation of the open e; i.e., whether it is made up of
one positive and one negative choice, one choice only, or no
choice. No choice may well result from a symptom forma-
tion, since discharge so complete that there remains not even
the slightest residual tension is unusual.

If the open e constellation occurs as part of a changing
pattern, i.e., loaded minus e constellations alternating with
open constellations, some kind of paroxysmal outburst was
most probably taking place between the two states. This
pattern is also characteristic for real epilepsy, although the
change in the e factor alone is not enough for diagnosis.
Real epilepsy is associated with plus s and minus m constel-
lations and a weak ego, in addition to its association with the
changing e constellation.

The pathodiagnostic significance of the open e is implied
in the general description of this constellation. In addition
to the states mentioned above, open e is found with relatively
high frequency in manic psychosis, a finding which can be
understood dynamically on the basis of the motor significance
of the e factor, discussed above.

The open e constellation is not characteristic for any par-
ticular age group. In all age groups it occurs in approxi-
mately thirty per cent of the subjects, except in old age
(around seventy years) when it becomes more frequent. This
most probably indicates the constant irritability without con-
trol characteristic of old people.

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR

97

The hy Factor

The second factor within the paroxysmal vector, the hy
factor, is closely linked to the function of the e factor because
it also indicates the way in which the person handles his
emotions. Nevertheless, the hy factor can be considered as
an opposite to the e factor because the e factor expresses the
way in which violent emotions, linked with the s factor, are
handled, while the hy factor relates more to emotions corre-
sponding to the h factor in the sexual vector. The relation-
ship between epilepsy and hysteria is mentioned more and
more in modern psychiatry. In psychopathic hospitals,
the diagnosis “hysteroepilepsy” is made rather frequently
to indicate that motor seizures resembling epilepsy are
believed to be reactions to disturbing emotional experiences.
The part emotional experience plays in inducing epileptic
seizures is being recognized more and more by psychiatrists.
Thus the dijfferentiation between epilepsy and hysteria often
becomes a matter of arbitrary decision. It was just this simi-
larity of hysterics to epileptics, in regard to emotional explo-
siveness accompanied by motor discharge, which led Szondi to
categorize hysteria as well as epilepsy in the paroxysmal vec-
tor. Since both diseases have in common a certain unpredic-
tability of emotional manifestations, both may be formally
characterized as disturbances in the sphere of emotional
control.

Of course, the quantitative as well as qualitative diflEerence
between emotional explosiveness corresponding to the hy
and explosiveness corresponding to the e factors must be
kept in mind as corresponding to the diflEerence in the quality
of the emotions in the h and the s factors, respectively. The
finer emotions, oriented toward a love object, find expres-
sion through the hy factor; and just because the content of
the hy is this nonaggressive libido, its explosiveness takes
place on a quantitatively much smaller scale than that of

SZONDI TEST

98

the e. The explosiveness of the hy consists of a frequent
oscillation in the manner in which affection is displayed;
thus, instead of violent paroxysmal outbursts, there is exhi-
bitionistic discharge of smaller amounts of libido.

Within the framework of the theory of the Szondi test,
we think of hysteria as depicting the following type of per-
sonality structure: either the functional barrier between the
inner-personal regions, corresponding to tender emotions of
love, and the region of motoric surrounding the personality,
is too weak, or the emotions themselves are too strong. In
either case, the result is that emotions break through to mani-
fest themselves in visible motor symptoms too easily.

This Lewinian topological representation * is given in
figure 7. This topological representation of the person was
first developed by Dembo.f

Fig. 7. Topological Representation After Lewin

Although for purposes of finer analysis one should draw a
more detailed topological representation, for our purpose it
is adequate to view the personality macroscopically as con-
sisting of two main parts: (a) The innerpersonal regions cor-
responding to the person’s various emotioned needs (indicated
in figure 7 by the area divided into various smaller areas
within the shaded sphere), and (b) The motor sphere which

• Lewin, K.: Dynamic Theory of Personality, New York and London,
McGraw-Hill Book Ctompany, Inc., 1935.

Dembo, T.: Der Arga: als dynamisches Problem, Psychol. Forsch.,
i5>

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR 99

functions as the region through which the person expresses
his needs in a visible form, or in any other form which can
be perceived by a person in his environment (indicated in
figure 7 by the shaded area). This region is represented as
surrounding the person because it functions as the means of
communication between the person and his environment.
The extent to which needs and emotions can be expressed
through the motoric sphere depends upon the strength of
the functional barrier (indicated in figure 7 by the circle, c)
which we assume to exist between the innerpersonal regions
and the motoric sphere. Dynamically, we think of this barrier
as built of restraining forces which act on the emotional
drives in the direction opposite to overt motor manifesta-
tions. Thus the strength of these restraining forces — or in
other words, the strength of this functional barrier — decides
the extent to which and the way in which emotions are
expressed. The interpretative meaning of the hy factor cen-
ters just on this boundary: on its strength as well as on the
qualitative peculiarities of its functioning. Under normal
circumstances it is expected that this boundary functions
smoothly in a flexible way, permitting the necessary amount
of motoric expression of emotions, speech, gestures, and facial
expressions belonging to this group of phenomena.

In the case of hysterics, however, there are disturbances
in the functioning of this boundary. Because of the weak-
ness of the boundary, or because of the extreme intensity
of the emotional drives, the motor expression of emotions
takes an exaggerated or distorted form.

We have intended to present here the formal dynamic
description of the visible symptomatology of hysteria, with-
out considering, in this context, the genetic origin of these
motor symptoms. The apparent overemotionality of hyster-
ics, the unpredictability of their overt emotional reactions,
the visible outbursts of positive affects as well as of anxiety
and even conversion symptoms, can be described in the

100

SZONDI TEST

above sense as reflecting the erroneous functioning of the
motoric-expressive region. In all these instances the motor
apparatus is used to express emotions in such a way that it
interferes with the rationally purposeful and integrated func-
tioning of the total personality.

Further characteristic for all the hysteric phenomena men-
tioned above are their exhibitionistic manifestations of emo-
tions. The term ‘‘exhibitionist” is used in this context in its
broadest literal meaning; namely, to describe one who actu-
ally exhibits, i.e., displays, his emotional state to the persons
in his environment. In this sense, hysteria is the prototype
of an exhibitionistic disturbance. Accordingly — to return to
the test interpretation — ^reactions to the portraits of hysteric
patients are presumed to reflect the intensity and quality of
the “drive for exhibitionism” as it exists in the subject react-
ing to these portraits.

Just as all other needs, (or drives) represented by the
eight factors in the Szondi test, this “need for exhibitionism”
is presumed to be present not only in the psychologically
maladjusted, but in all individuals, since the ability to demon-
strate one's feelings — at least to a certain extent — ^is necessary
for psychologic adjustment.

Plus hy

Positive reactions to the pictures of hysteric patients indi-
cate that the subject identifies himself with the need to
exhibit emotions in a perceptible way. The extent to which
this need is socialized depends on the intensity of the plus hy
as well as on the constellation of the other factors. In every
case a positive hy reaction does indicate that the subject is
inclined to be demonstrative emotionally, which inclination
should not be confused with the actual intensity and depth
of the emotions. There is a negative correlation; namely,
that superficial emotions are often those which lead more
rapidly to emotional expression than do the more serious

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR

lOl

emotions. Dembo reaches the same conclusions in regard to
the dynamics of discharging emotions in her study * of the
experimental creation of anger.

In my experience with the Szondi test, I also found that
definite and constant plus hy constellations are the reactions
of those subjects who, in spite of easy expression of emotions,
can still be characterized — ^in colloquial terms — ^as having a
rather shallow emotional life. It is tempting to draw a paral-
lel of plus ''hy'" with the proportion of C reactions in the
Rorschach test, except that I have no quantitative data to
support the actual existence of this correlation between plus
hy constellations and the number of C*s. Yet, it seems to me
a promising correlation for which to look.

In terms of the scheme of personality represented by fig.
7, a plus hy constellation indicates the weakness of the func-
tional barrier between the emotional and the motor regions.
The threshold of translation of emotional tension into motor
behavior is low. Plus hy individuals are able to structure
their lives in ways that win them considerable amounts of
attention. They enjoy playing roles, and have a definite need
for audience, which need often drives them into occupations
or professions particularly well suited to satisfy this exhibi-
tionistic, narcissistic need. Professional actors, performing
artists, politicians, certain types of organizers, teachers, or
the followers of any profession which permits appearance
“on stage,” can be numbered among those who have found
acceptable socialized channels to satisfy the needs implicit
in plus hy.

For the purpose of clinical diagnosis, the plus hy constel-
lation has twofold significance: it is as definite an indication
of certain psychopathologic states as it is counterindication
of others. Thus, immediately within the group of the vari-
ous types of hysteria, the plus hy constellation can be used
as a diagnostic sign in either of the two ways. It frequently

* Dembo, Tamara: Ibid.

102

SZONDI TEST

occurs in conversion hysteria (in about thirty per cent) while
it is practically never found in cases of anxiety hysteria, nor
in hypochondriac anxiety. It is also found relatively fre-
quently in cases of so-called hysteroepilepsy.

These findings support what has been said about the rela-
tion of the plus hy to the poorly functioning barrier between
the motor and emotional spheres. Any form of conversion
hysteria implies that the motoric (muscle) apparatus func-
tions in an improper way, in which some parts of the muscle
system are used for innervations which have rationally (from
the point of view of conscious, logical thinking) no purpose
whatsoever. In conversion symptoms, such parts of the motor
system are used for the purpose of expressing unconscious
emotional drives which, under normal circumstances, are
used for completely different functions, such as locomotion,
intake of nourishment, breathing, etc. However, due to
improper innervations the organism is inhibited in the exe-
cution of these rational functions and is practically “forced”
by the dynamic strength of the emotions to use the respec-
tive organs to exhibit emotions in the form of a symptom
which is usually quite apparent for the outsider even though
its full meaning — ^what the symptom is expressing in a dis-
torted way — can be understood only by the lengthy process
of psychoanalysis. In ahistoric dynamic terms, such exhibi-
tionistic but irrational motor symptoms are due to the mal-
function of restraining forces on the boundary of the motor
region so that the emotions are expressed in the wrong area.
The frequency of the plus hy in conversion hysteria, as well
as in hystero-epileptic seizures, can be understood on the
basis of this dynamic theory.

The lack of plus hy in anxiety hysteria and in hypochon-
driac anxiety follows from the same considerations since
anxiety states are, from this ahistoric point of view, the out-
come of the inability to demonstrate affects through the
means of motor discharge which leads to an inner accumula-

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR

103

tion of aflEects and to a subjective feeling of tension and
anxiety. These are the cases in which the threshold of trans-
lation of emotional tension into motor expression is patho-
logically high. More will be said about this mechanism in
connection with the minus hy constellation.

From the point of view of development, the plus hy occurs
most frequently in small children and decreases gradually
around prepuberty. Its lowest frequency is reached in puberty
and early adolescence. In old age there is again a sudden
increase in the frequency of the plus hy, resulting in approxi-
mately the percentage (22—25 cent) that occurs in very
young children. This curve illustrates the well known fact
that in early childhood and in advanced age, emotions are
most readily exhibited, while in the long period between
these two poles of development one is usually compelled by
inner and outer urgings to exert more control in the display
of personal feelings.

Minus hy

Negative choices in the hy factor indicate that the subject
rejects the stimulus material representing exhibitionistic
tendencies; thus, minus hy is characteristic of those individ-
uals who are either unwilling or unable to demonstrate their
feelings in an overtly perceptible way. People who give minus
hy constellation have some quality of emotional shyness
which, however, does not necessarily exclude an intensive
emotional life. This correlation — that the serious emotions
are less likely to be expressed readily — ^has been mentioned
in connection with the plus hy. The functional boundary
between the emotional regions and the motor sphere acts —
in the case of the minus hy constellation — ^indeed as a bar-
rier blocking emotions from visible manifestations. This
emotional control, if it is not too rigid, can be the sign of a
well-functioning superego, which has overcome the infantile
need for narcissistic, exhibitionistic satisfaction and thus the

SZONDI TEST

104

person is able to live an intensive emotional life without the
need to display feelings to an audience. From this descrip-
tion, one can already conclude that the minus hy constella-
tion shows a strong correlation with plus e, which is actually
the case. However, if emotional control is too rigid, there
follows — in psychoanalytic terms — ^repression of the libido,
which can lead to a number of neurotic symptoms.

Psychologic characteristics which accompany the minus hy
constellation include a vivid phantasy life, a tendency for
daydreaming, and an ability for playful, “prelogical” think-
ing. The dynamics of all these traits can be derived from the
fact that emotions are not acted out, but rather are felt as
an inner, subjective experience.

Here we should re-emphasize the general dynamic princi-
ple that denial of a need and indication of this denial by the
minus reaction in any factor, does not mean the absolute
lack of that need in the personality. On the contrary, it might
mean that the need which is denied by the ego or superego is
present as a potent unconscious dynamism, inhibited from
overt manifestation by some censoring agent. Thus, the minus
hy constellation does not mean that the person has no need to
“exhibit” himself. All these exhibitionistic needs are implied
in the minus hy as well as in the plus hy; however, whereas
they are acted out in the plus constellation, they are kept
latent by controlling forces in the minus constellation. As
a matter of fact, the minus hy^ more strongly than the plus,
indicates that the above needs are of specific dynamic impor-
tance in the total structure of the personality just because
overt discharge has been denied them.

These apparent paradoxes in the interpretation of single
constellations in the Szondi test make interpretation of the
test so complex a psychologic process. The interpreter must
be familiar with the equally paradoxical dynamics of the
unconscious, which ignores the rules of logical thinking in its
use of the same symbol to signify one thing and its opposite

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR

105

simultaneously. The fact that the Szondi test reflects the sub-
ject’s emotional reactions at this level of deeply unconscious
ambivalence makes it an instrument unique among the vari-
ous psycho-diagnostic procedures, but it limits the number
of individuals who are able to make maximum use of the
diagnostic possibilities of this instrument.

Returning to the interpretation of the minus hy constel-
lation: if the constellation is loaded (four or more choices
in minus direction), we interpret it as an indication that the
person does have strong exhibitionistic drives which are
frustrated. The more loaded the minus hy is, the more prob-
able it is that exhibitionism is apparent in actual behavior
in some distorted form, although the loaded minus constella-
tion is a definite sign that whatever manifestations break
through are inadequate to relieve frustration in the subject.

The minus hy constellation is generally more frequently
obtained than the plus. The psychodiagnostic groups for
which it is particularly characteristic are homosexuality
(many times only latent, but felt as dynamically strong homo-
sexual drives), anxiety hysteria, states of diffuse anxiety,
phobia and hypochondriac anxiety. In children, it can occur
in pseudologia phantastica. The lowest frequency of the
minus hy constellation occurs in conversion hysteria.

The dynamic relation of the minus hy constellation to
the various forms of anxiety has been mentioned in the dis-
cussion of the infrequency of these symptoms in cases of
plus hy. This relation of repression of libido to anxiety was
the core of Freud’s first theory of anxiety, and fits in very well
with the experimental findings in the Szondi test that the most
common indication of anxiety is a strong minus hy reaction.
The frequency of minus hy in homosexuals is not quite easy
to understand. It most probably reflects the neurotic anxiety
characteristic for homosexuals. It also might be due to the
fact that homosexuals actually never dare really to “show”
themselves. Primary guilt feelings because of the forbidden

io6

SZONDI TEST

yet dynamic incestuous drives — the original cause of homo-
sexuality — as well as secondary guilt feelings resulting from
general social disapproval, might all be reflected in the
minus hy.

The fact that the minus hy is rarely found in conversion
hysteria can be understood on the basis of what has been said
about the relation of conversion symptoms to plus hy con-
stellations. The high threshold of expression of emotional
tension through motor symptoms in minus hy — in contrast
to the low threshold in plus hy — prevents the formation of
excessive muscle innervations characteristic of conversion
hysteria.

The frequency of minus hy is fairly constant in the vari-
ous age groups, except that it occurs rather rarely in very
young children (three to five years), and reaches its highest
frequency in prepuberty and puberty.

Plus-minus hy

The interpretation of this hy constellation can be deduced
by combining what has been said about the plus and the
minus hy constellations. As in all ambi-equal reactions, the
plus minus hy constellation reflects subjectively experienced
conflict and tension in the individual. In this case it reflects
conflict in those who cannot resolve to conceal or disclose
their feelings. However, in the hy factor this subjective expe-
riencing of the two opposite tendencies appears to be satis-
factorily resolved more readily than it is, for example, in the
e factor. In this respect the plus-minus hy can be compared
to the plus-minus s pattern, even in its fields of sublimation.
In both factors, various fields of artistic sublimation serve as
adequate outlets for the tension implied in the ambivalent
factorial reaction. And even in those plus-minus hy subjects
for whom art is not the main field of work, one can often
find a tendency for some sort of exhibitionistic extravagance
(not in the pathological meaning of the word), in the form

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR 16 J

of hobbies, tnannerisms in the general conduct of life, choice
of clothing, etc.

The clinical implications of the plus-minus hy lie mainly
in the realm of neuroses. Its relatively highest frequency
occurs in compulsion neurosis, most probably as a result of
the basic ambivalence characteristic for compulsive subjects,
and as a reflection of the frequent mannerisms of compulsive
characters.

The distribution of plus-minus hy throughout the various
age groups is fairly even, showing some fluctuation, between
the frequency values, of about fifteen to twenty per cent.
Thus, the occurrence of this hy constellation is found to be
generally about half the frequency of the minus hy. The one
age group in which plus-minus hy is relatively least frequent
(about ten per cent) is young adulthood, between the ages
of twenty and thirty. The decrease in this age group is due
to the increase in pure plus and pure minus hy patterns, indi-
cating that subjects of this age take more definite stands in
regard to the manner in which they direct their libido than
do subjects in younger or older age groups.

Open hy

The draining of the hy factor means that the person’s needs
to give some perceptible manifestation of his libido is being
lived out — ^at least for the time being. Since, more than are
any of the other factors, the hy factor is particularly prone
to show variations from one test administration to the next,
usually in the form of draining under the influence of
momentary experiences, generalizations about Its “open”
constellation are particularly hard to make. And even in
those cases where the open hy constellation appears as a
consistent feature of a series of test profiles, it is more difii-
cult to characterize in general terms than are the same con-
stellations in other factors because of the variety of ways
exhibitionistic needs can appear in surface behavior. The

108 SZONDI TEST

one interpretation valid for all cases of open hy is that some-
thing is being acted out: whether this indicates the unin-
hibited acting out of libidinal feelings towards the actual
love-object, or whether it indicates the acting out of compul-
sive ceremonies in an exhibitionistic way, cannot be decided
from the hy factor alone. In any case, individuals giving con-
stant open hy constellations do not exercise strong control
over their emotions and are likely to show their emotional
reactions to outside experiences quickly. Even within the
range of ‘'normality,*' they are usually what can be called
“hysteroid” individuals.

From the foregoing it follows that the open hy constella-
tion can be found in a variety of clinical groups. Its greatest
percentual frequency is found in manic psychosis and in anti-
social, emotionally unstable psychopathic personalities,
including criminals. Freedom in acting out drives and lack
of emotional control are characteristic of all these subjects.

Among neurotics, the open hy is found relatively most
frequently — although to lesser degree than in the psychotic
and psychopathic first mentioned groups — ^in compulsive
neurotics. The hypothesis that in these cases it is the exhi-
bitionistic acting out of compulsive rituals and ceremonies
which drains the tension in the hy factor has been mentioned
previously.

The open hy constellation is least frequent in anxiety
hysteria. It is frequent in small children, up to the beginning
of the latency period, when it becomes the rarest of all the
Eour main hy constellations. It becomes again more frequent
in adolescence and shows a slow increase throughout the
jrears, reaching about the same frequency in old age as it has
in young children.

P Vectorial Constellations

In the following the most important combinations of the
:onstellations in the e and the hy factors will be characterized

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR

109

briefly. As in the case of the 5 vector, I shall have to limit
myself to the presentation of those P vectorial constellations
which correspond to the most clearly distinguishable types
of personality. Thus it is hoped that on the basis of a
few “basic*’ P vectorial constellations the remaining varia-
tions can be deducted. The order of presentation will fol-
low the degree to which the constellations lend themselves
to clear-cut personality characterizations.

Plus e with minus hy

Concurrence of the plus e with the minus hy forms the
most controlled P vectorial constellation. The plus as well
as the minus hy^ indicates that emotions are controlled
strictly, precluding any exhibitionistic display. Of the six-
teen possible configurations in the P vector, that is, of
all the possible combinations of the two factors in four
directions, this configuration indicates the strongest superego,
which is the same as saying that the plus e and minus hy vec-
torial pattern is characteristic for ethical individuals and is
the most definite sign on the profile against any form of anti-
social or criminal behavior. Plus e alone, as well as minus hy
alone, is indication against criminality, but alone neither of
them excludes it to the degree of certainty to which it is
excluded when these two constellations appear as parts of
the same P vectorial configuration. The plus e, minus hy
configuration is given often by religious individuals, or by
those who show particularly strong interest in problems of
general social welfare. Emotions are felt strongly, but are not
easily expressed by subjects in this category.

If this configuration shows inflexibility by remaining
unchanged within a series of ten profiles, it is a sign of an
emotional control too rigid and indicates a compulsive
character.

Among the various psychoses, the plus minus hy con-
figuration is found most frequently in catatonic schizo-

no

SZONDI TEST

phrenia. The psychodynamics underlying this empirical
finding have been mentioned in connection with the plus e
constellation. A conceivable causal connection was hypothe-
sized between the extreme strength of the functional bar-
rier between the emotional and the motor regions and the
development of catatonic schizophrenia. Of all the P vec-
torial constellations, plus e and minus hy represent the great-
est disability to discharge emotional tensions through the
motor apparatus. Further findings that agitated forms of
catatonic schizophrenia are not found in this P vectorial
group support the theory.

The fact that this is the most frequent P vectorial configu-
ration in conversion hysteria and in cases of well structured
phobic anxiety (the expression ‘‘well structured” being here
used as the opposite of “free-floating”) can be understood also
on the basis of the strict superego and the difficulty in regard
to free motoric discharge of tension. The differential diag-
nostic signs between catatonic schizophrenics and the two
forms of neuroses mentioned above can be found in the Sch
vector. While the strict control over emotional manifestations
result in a similar configuration in the P vector, the addi-
tional sign of plus k (autism) appears in conjunction with
catatonic symptoms, whereas neurotic conversion or phobic
symptoms go with minus k as indication of the basic repres-
sion in the ego.

The plus €y minus hy is a typically adult constellation and
if found in children is a sign of precocious development of
the superego. It is one of the most frequent P configurations
in adolescents and adults up to the age of approximately
sixty, after which there is a sudden drop in its frequency
until, in old age, it is even less frequent (about six per cent)
than it is in children.

Minus e with plus hy

The minus e, plus hy constellation opposes the plus e,
minus hy constellation in visible configuration as well as in

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR

111

its psychodynamic meaning. The minus e component indi-
cates the tendency to accumulate aggressive tension without
any positive mechanism of control, and the plus hy compo-
nent indicates the tendency for exhibitionistic discharge of
emotions. In other words, portraits of epileptics are rejected
with a simultaneous liking for portraits of hysterics by people
who generally tend to direct their emotions in an antisocial
way.

In the whole test there is not a single other vectorial con-
figuration — ^in none of the four vectors, with all their sixteen
constellations — in which I would feel as justified to reach
conclusions containing so many ethical value-judgments as
I do in the case of plus minus hy configuration and its
opposite.

Individuals with minus plus hy configuration are little
concerned with the way their actions affect others, and gen-
erally — even if within socialized limits — they belong to the
type of “go-getter” whose main concern is his own egotistic
advantage. These characteristics are particularly obvious if
the minus e, plus hy configuration appears concurrently with
the plus s and plus d constellations on a profile in which there
is no minus A.

The general occurrence of the minus plus hy configura-
tion is about half the frequency of the opposing plus e, minus
hy configuration. Its pathodiagnostic significance lies in the
realm of antisocial forms of behavior, whether in the form
of criminality or in other forms of psychopathology. In its
highest frequency it is found in murderers and other types
of overtly aggressive criminals, in manic psychotics, in epi-
leptics near seizure, and in agitated cases of general paresis.
Antisocial and impulsive motor excitability is the common
dynamic characteristic of all these groups.

The minus plus hy configuration is rare in neurotics,
since the strength of the superego — even though unwanted
in part by the neurotic person — is usually a dynamic pre-

112

SZONDI TEST

condition for the symptom formation of various neuroses.
It might be found in asocial, hysteroid characters.

In its relatively greatest frequency this P vectorial constel-
lation is found in old age. The only other age group in
which this constellation figures as one of the four most fre-
quent P vector configurations is early childhood, under the
age of six.

This parallel in the frequencies of certain constellations
in young children and in old age, must have been obvious
throughout our discussion. To a certain extent it can be
considered as validating interpretations associated with the
various factor and vector constellations because of the psy-
chodynamic consistency implied in these symmetrical dis-
tribution curves. This distribution most probably is due
to the fact that each factor of the test can express the pres-
ence or the lack of a controlling mechanism, either self-
regulating or of some other type, depending on the specific
direction of the factors. Further, we know from other studies
of genetic psychology, as well as from clinical observations,
that early childhood and old age are dynamically similar in
their relative lack of such controls in behavior.

Minus e with minus hy

Unlike the S vector, in which both factors forming con-
stellations in the same direction represent fusion between
two related but opposite drives, constellations in the same
direction in the P vector express just the opposite; namely,
simultaneous existence of emotional control indicated in one
factor with the lack of control indicated in the other factor.
The reason for this discrepancy in the interpretation of the
5 and P vectorial configurations lies in the fact that while
the primary interpretations of the two factors in the 5 vector
— the basic drives represented by the h and s photographs —
are the basic id-drives themselves, in the P vector the stimulus
material of one of the two factors, the e, represents not the
basic id-drive in its original form, but in a form representing

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR II3

tlie superego’s control over the particular drive. Accordingly,
in the P vector the previous vectorial configurations repre-
sent unified ways of handling emotions, whether in a socially
positive or negative way, while constellations in which both
factors are in minus or both in plus directions represent self-
contradictory, conflicting ways of handling emotional drives.

In the case of the minus e, minus hy configuration, violent
emotions accumulate in potential readiness for an outburst
(minus e). However, the actual discharge of these emotions
is barred, or at least delayed, by the controlling function of
the minus hy^ which acts as a barrier against any exhibition-
istic display of emotions. As a consequence of these conflict-
ing tendencies the whole emotional sphere is tense and is
experienced subjectively as free-floating, diffuse anxiety. The
more constant this P vectorial configuration proves to be
within a series of ten profiles, the more is this subjectively
experienced discomfort. Actually, more frequently than not,
the tension implied in the minus e, minus hy configuration
does find some outlet during the course of administration of
a series of ten profiles which then is indicated by the draining,
or at least relative draining, of the whole vector.

Clinically, this constellation is a well-known sign for all
those diagnostic groups which imply the presence of diffuse
anxiety. Characteristic of such diffuse anxiety is the indi-
vidual’s inability to project his anxiety on one specific object
or one specific exigency he fears; rather, he talks vaguely
about fears of death, or insanity, or other disintegrative
catastrophes. Since the minus e, minus hy configuration in
the P vector appears most frequently with the plus h, plus
s configuration in the S vector, the fear most probably is
concerned many times with the danger of a socially unde-
sirable break-through of sexual and aggressive impulses. Or
it might indicate the “drive anxiety” as described by Anna
Freud,* which means that the person feels uncomfortable

* Freud, Anna: The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense. London,
Hogarth Press, 1937-

SZONDI TEST

114

and anxious from experiencing his own impulses, which does
not necessarily imply that discharge of the drive would result
in antisocial behavior. In such cases the patient is afraid of
nothing but his own id.

In children the constellation in the S and the P vectors
described above is often indicative of masturbation anxiety
and ensuing guilt-feelings. The minus e, minus hy configura-
tion is the most frequent P vectorial configuration of adult
stutterers, another group for whom unresolved emotional
tension is characteristic.

This constellation occurs often in many kinds of delinquen-
cies, and even in severe crimes. However, in the latter there
is a tendency for periodical draining in the P vector. Thus
the criminal act itself could be considered as a dynamic con-
sequence of the extreme panic-stricken tension implied in
the loaded minus minus hy configuration. In other
instances one might wonder whether the psychodynamic sig-
nificance of committing an antisocial act is release of an exist-
ing emotional tension, or rather the creation of a situation
which realistically justifies the previously existing but appar-
ently irrational fears. According to my own experience with
children referred to me from the juvenile court, the latter is
often the case.

The minus minus hy configuration occurs most fre-
quently in childhood up to adolescence. It decreases in fre-
quency until it reaches approximately the sixty year age
group, then increases again. However, it does not again reach
the frequency with which it appears in childhood (about
twenty per cent.)

Plus e with plus hy

The plus e, plus hy configuration is generally a rarely
occurring P configuration, its frequency of occurrence in an
average population being about one-fourth of the frequency
of the minus e, minus hy constellation. However, the dis-
tinct emotional peculiarities corresponding to this configura-
tion justify its separate characterization.

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR II5

It resembles the minus minus hy P vectorial constella-
tion in the concurrence of emotional control in one compo-
nent and lack of control in the other. However, it differs in
the quality of the emotional tension resulting from these
contradictory tendencies in regard to the way emotions are
directed, since there is a more genuine control of aggression
indicated by the presence of the plus e component. Thus
in this configuration there is the tendency for emotional
exhibitionism implied in the plus hy component, the anti-
social use of which is prevented by the superego (plus e).
The outcome of this constellation of forces is experienced as
emotional inflation, exhibitionistic drives are let through
but only in the service of socially acceptable goals. Individ-
uals giving this P vectorial configuration are usually overly
kind and charming in an exhibitionistic way. They spend
much of their time expressing and taking interest in emotions.
They like to be good and helpful, and they are careful that
other people notice their goodness.

The plus e, plus hy configuration is not characteristic of
any particular clinical group. It is a complex emotional
pattern yielded by ‘‘hysteroid” individuals usually, how-
ever, without any definite symptom formation. It appears
that the ability to act out emotional drives prevents these
formations. Further, antisocial behavior seems to be pre-
vented by the control of the plus e component.

The distribution of the plus plus hy configuration
throughout the various age groups shows exactly a curve
opposite to that of the minus e, minus hy configuration. It
is most frequent in adulthood and in late adolescence, less
frequent in old age, and least frequent in children.

Plus-minus e with plus-minus hy

The plus-minus e, plus-minus hy constellation contains as .
components all the configurations discussed above. One could
call this the most ambivalent of all emotional patterns, since

S20NDI TEST

116

it contains all the components indicative of emotional con-
trol (plus e with minus hy) as well as those indicative of
readiness for an aggressive and exhibitionistic emotional
outburst (minus e with plus hy). This unresolved tension
is subjectively experienced as an extremely uncomfortable
situation. Yet, because of the existence of the controlling
mechanisms in this configuration, discharge of tension
through explosive outbursts is less likely to occur than it is
in the case of minus e with minus hy. Consequently, the
present P configuration is not characteristic for delinquents
or criminals, or for antisocial psychotic behavior. Generally
it is among the rarest P configurations; it occurs even less
frequently throughout the general population than does the
plus e, plus hy vectorial patterns. Its highest frequency
occurs in adult stutterers; its second highest frequency, in
compulsive neurotics.

There is only one age group in which the plus-minus
plus-minus hy vectorial pattern figures as one of the four most
frequent P patterns; and that is in seventeen to eighteen year
old adolescents. In this group it most probably reflects the
emotional conflict resulting from the adolescent’s search for
the limits to which drives should be expressed or inhibited,
a characteristic problem of this age.

Open e with Open hy

The draining of both factors in the P vector indicates
momentary lack of tension in the area of emotional control.
It is even more difficult than it is in cases of other constella-
tions to describe an open e^ open hy configuration alone,
since usually it occurs within a series as the result of a sudden
emotional outburst. However, in those cases in which the
open open hy is a consistent constellation within a series of
ten profiles, it has to be interpreted as a sign that emotions
are lived out without difficulty. The boundary illustrated
in figure 7 as functioning on the edge of the emotional sphere

THE PAROXYSMAL VECTOR II7

does not function as a barrier in subjects yielding a steady
open e, open hy vectorial pattern, but permits emotions
to drift through easily. Subjects in this P vectorial category
are likely to react to everyday experiences in an “emotional”
way, expressing emotional reactions through gestures, into-
nation of voice, etc., quickly. They may be easily irritated
without, however, letting anger accumulate to a high pitch.
Their lack of ability to control emotions, even in situations
in which control is required, they often experience subjec-
tively as a feeling of helplessness. Moreover, the flood of
emotions resulting from the laxity of the boundary around
emotional regions may handicap sustained intellectual con-
centration.

The open e, open hy configuration is frequent in both
extremes of manic-depressive psychoses, but it is most fre-
quent in the manic stage. It also has been found rather fre-
quently in early childhood stuttering. Among criminals,
this constellation appears twice as frequently as it does
throughout the average population, of whom five per cent
yield open e with open hy.

This P vectorial constellation is distributed fairly evenly
throughout the age groups, occurring with relatively highest
frequency in old age.

In the following chapter I shall digress in the order of
presentation of the single factors from the order as indicated
on the test profile. Instead of discussing the Sch vector,
which on the profile follows the P vector, we will consider
the interpretation of the two factors of the C vector and leave
the discussion of the Sch vector for later. The reason for
this order of presentation is that the Sch vector reflects the
structure of the ego, which in some way represents the result-
ant of all the partial drives corresponding to the other six
factors. The way this elaboration of drives through the ego
is taking place will be discussed in connection with the Sch
vector.

Chapter IX

The Contact Vector

Originally the C designation of the Contact vector was
intended to indicate the group of circular psychoses which
in the terminology of European psychiatry comprises the
manic-depressive manic and manic-depressive depressive
forms of psychoses, and includes what is known as melan-
cholia.

However, the more was learned about the interpretation
of this vector, the more Szondi was inclined to call it contact
vector, since choice-reactions to pictures of manic-depressive
patients represent psychologically the subject’s attitudes
toward the objects (in the psychoanalytic sense of object of
libido) of the environment or, in other words, the subject’s
contact with reality.

In interpreting the two factors of this vector, the d and the
m, we make more use of psychoanalytic concepts — ^mainly
those in regard to pregenital '‘component” impulses of anal
and oral drives — than we did in interpreting any of the
other vectors. The reader is referred to those works of
Freud * and Abraham f which contain their theories con-
cerning the significance of the pregenital phases of sexuality
in regard to the later character formation of the individual.

* Freud, Sigmund: Three Contributions to the Theory of Sex. New
York, Nerv. and Ment. Dis. Pub. Co., 1910. Character and Anal
Erotism. Collected Papers, Vol. II, 1929. The Predisposition to
Obsessional Neuroses. Collected Papers, Vol. II.

t Abraham, Karl: Selected Papers. Hogarth Press, Inst. Psychoana-
lytic Library Series, No. 13, 1927.

118

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119

The d Factor

Reactions to pictures of depressive patients are assumed to
be related to those features of the personality which can be
traced back to the specific way in which the subject has passed
through the anal phase of psychosexual development. Thus,
in interpreting the d factor, personality traits which are
known in psychoanalytic literature as “anal characteristics”
primarily will be mentioned. Anal characteristics refer mostly
to certain types of the individual’s object-relationships: that
is, to his attitudes toward the objects of his environment.
Possessiveness, orderliness, pedantry, and parsimony are
among the most frequently listed anal character traits. The
typically anal aspect of object relationship centers in the
problem of retention or surrender of objects, and in the
person’s reaction to the loss of a libidinously cathected
object.

To establish a psychologic relationship between character
traits like those listed above to the child’s early anal func-
tions is difficult enough, yet it is an easier task than to estab-
lish an acceptable hypothesis which relates this whole group
of traits to the reaction of liking or disliking photographic
portraits of depressive patients.

The relationship between certain aspects of the personal-
ity and various stages of the psychosexual development was
first observed and described by Freud, and was later sup-
ported and elaborated by Ferenczi, Abraham, and others.
Freud found in his patients that those who in their childhood
have particularly strong and long-lasting interest in their
excretory processes develop later into the so-called “anal
characters.” The link between the two phases is established
through the assumption that the child cathects his own feces
positively, considering it as part of himself, as something he
owns, and over which he can exert will and power. This
hypothesis is supported by published case histories as well
as by case histories of individuals whom I have observed.

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SZONDI TEST

The stage o£ frustration, or feeling of deprivation, which
interferes with the primitive narcissistic enjoyment of being
the sole master of one’s own excretory processes begins with
the sphincter training imposed upon the child by adults of
his environment. This is the period in the child’s maturation
in which, depending on the force or persuasion through
which he becomes aware of sphincter control, basic attitudes
towards handling possessions and towards discipline in gen-
eral develop.

On the basis of psychoanalytic experience one can assume
that the narcissistic, emotional overestimation of the feces in
childhood is transferred, through unconscious mechanisms
of symbolization and displacement, to other objects of the
environment representing real values. For later character
formation, the unconscious identifying of feces with money,
gifts, and valuables in general is of great importance. Those
for whom the learning of sphincter control in childhood was
a psychologically traumatic experience are most likely to
develop in their later life irrational feelings in regard to any-
thing they possess, either in overestimating or in underesti-
mating the significance of tangible objects. The specific
experience which acts traumatically on these individuals is
the compulsion under which they had to give up something
which belonged to them — their feces — ^at the request of
others. This traumatic experience may result in personality
characteristic of being unable to give up objects, or trying
to compensate for the loss of the primary, libidinously
cathected object by hoarding or avidly accumulating
possessions.

In interpreting the Szondi test we assume that symptoms
of depression are likely to develop in those individuals who
are characteristically “anal.” The psychologic link between
depression and anal characteristics is the constant anxiety
of depressive patients in regard to remote possibilities of
losing money or of running out of whatever supplies are of

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121

particular importance to them. This anxiety is well-known
to any clinician who ever worked with depressive patients
who must have more than they need, and who fear loss even
in the case of overabundance.

According to our interpretation, the d portraits in the
Szondi test reflect this tight, worrying attachment to objects,
a reaction formation to the trauma of the loss of the “pri-
mary” object of libido. The psychodynamics of depression
as a reaction to the loss of an object is described in detail in
Freud’s Mourning and Melancholia.^ There he differentiates
between the psychologically normal process of mourning
and the pathologic symptoms of depression (melancholia),
which — on the surface— differ mainly in the length of time
the symptoms of depression can be observed. The additional
premise needed to fill out the gap still existing between the
interpretation of anal characteristics and the reactions to
portraits of depressive patients is that pathologically long-
lasting symptoms of depression following loss of a love-object
occur in individuals who have shown typically anal charac-
teristics prior to their manifest illness. A particularly strong,
“sticky,” attachment to the love object whose loss elicited the
depressive symptoms is assumed. Furthermore this typically
anal tenacity of the libido is presumed to have developed
genetically from early childhood experiences constituting the
foundation of the development of anal character traits.

Another possibility — ^which takes the constitutional ele-
ments of the personality more into consideration — ^is that,
irrespective of any specific traumas which occur during train-
ing of sphincter control, and irrespective of the type of dis-
cipline experienced, certain individuals will develop anal
characteristics. In these individuals one assumes a constitu-
tionally determined inclination to develop just these and no
other characteristics, so that incidents in sphincter training

* Freud, Sigmund: Mourning and Melancholia. Collected Papers,
Vol. IV, 1925.

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SZONDI TEST

merely strengthen constitutionally predetermined, or heredi-
tary, patterns of reaction. Such persons, presumed to be
“traumatophyl” by constitution, would have abstracted char-
acteristic traumatic experiences for themselves no matter
what treatment they received from their environment. The
same idea is expressed in Freud’s theory concerning the
significance of what he called complimentary series, which
assigns to heredity a role more important in the formation
of various neuroses than one would assume from reading
some of the more recent psychoanalytic literature.

Plus d

A positive reaction in the d factor is indication that the
subject identifies himself with anal characteristics. Thus the
following features of the individual’s object-relationships can
be interpreted on the basis of a plus d reaction: there is a
strong need for concrete objects which implies that real
objects are highly estimated, and there is a general interest
in outside reality as the source of all material things. This
realistic, extrovert interest which results from the high value
attached to real objects, necessarily accompanies a tendency
actively to manipulate and pursue objects, which reveals
the close link between the plus s and plus d characteristics.
This relationship can be anticipated by what is known about
the usual coexistence of anal and sadistic character traits.
The basis for this close association is not quite clear, although
several hypotheses can be made. From the point of view of
the correlation between the plus s and the plus d reactions in
the test, it is enough to point out that both the sadistic
impulses (the physically active, manipulative drive implied
in the plus s) and the anal type of object relationship (implied
in the plus d) have in common the tendency to control
objects. Actually these traits are quite typical for subjects
with a steady plus d reaction. Of course this basic tendency
to control objects can have a variety of manifestations,

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123

depending on other factors. It might take the form of anti-
social aggression in some individuals (in conjunction with
plus or open minus and minus m patterns) as well as
pedantry, orderliness, or scientific attempts to force things
into a system (in conjunction with a minus h plus k or plus
p and plus associated with the plus d.) In other instances,
the anal tendencies of plus d find expression in such subli-
mated interests as collections (stamps, books, coins, etc.) or
professions systematizing and criticizing works of others.
The author’s unpublished study on various groups of crea-
tive and performing artists (cited previously in connection
with the s factor) showed that plus d was by far most common
among sculptors, next among painters, and least common
among musicians. These data bear out the earlier findings
of psychoanalysts who concluded that interest in molding and
sculpting can be traced to the infantile anal pleasure of
smearing.

Other character traits which can be deduced from the spe-
cific '‘adhesive” quality of the libido in anal personalities,
and are characteristic of the plus d constellation, are general
possessiveness, tendency for rivalry, and a persistence in
reaching a goal which might even lead to obstinacy. Dispo-
sition for depressive mood is indicated by the plus d, prob-
ably because the loss of possessions is experienced as a con-
stant potential danger.

Accordingly, the plus d constellation is found with greatest
frequency, among diagnostic groups, in depression. As has
been said, it also frequently occurs in antisocial individuals.
The plus d and the open d are the two most frequent d
factorial constellations in the general population. The fre-
quency of plus “d” constellation reaches its peak in the
seven to eight year old group and in extremely advanced
age. Its frequency in seven or eight year old children
coincides with the period when collecting various objects
becomes generally important to them. A deeper interpre-

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SZONDI TEST

tation of this phenomenon suggests that this is the age when
children start to lose their strong attachment to their mother,
for which emotional loss the accumulation of various con-
crete objects might serve as a substitute. Incidentally, this
dynamic interpretation of the searching, collecting quality of
the plus d in children is presumed to hold for plus d in
general.

Minus d

It has been found that portraits of depressive patients are
disliked by subjects who refuse to identify themselves with
the anal type of possessive and aggressive object relationship
described in connection with the plus d reaction. The
adhesive quality of the libido cathexis, which is a typically
anal characteristic, holds for any loaded d reaction, plus as
well as minus, or plus-minus. However, there is a great
difference between the evaluation of material objects in plus
d and in minus d individuals. Minus d reaction indicates
that the attachment to the primary object has not been sur-
rendered, hence the individual depreciates the other con-
crete, material objects. Subjects in this d category are likely
to be extremely loyal to the object once cathected with libido.
They stick to their love object disregarding the realistic
possibilities of whether or not they can reach their goal.
This attitude makes them generally more idealistic and less
practical than individuals with plus d. In this sense, minus d
subjects are the real ‘‘conservatives” who shrink from inno-
vations and changes because they are not able or willing to
invest their libido in new objects. They could also be
characterized as generally passive in their object relationship,
since somehow cathecting the object, without motor efiEorts
to secure the object, is all they seem to care for. The cor-
relation between minus d and minus s is indicated by this
common feature of physical passivity, as well as by the find-
ing that both minus s and minus d patterns are reactions

THE CONTACT VECTOR 125

more common in women than in men. Reverse correlation
of these two factors on the profile, for example plus s with
minus are interesting problems for interpretation since
they indicate a contradiction inherent in the subject’s per-
sonality in regard to aggressively (or only actively) goal-
directed behavior. Such persons usually impress others as
being “aggressive,” while they conceal an underlying passive
fixation on a love-object by this surface activity.

At this point in our discussion, more complex combina-
tions or factorial constellations can be inserted briefly to
illustrate the reasoning implied in interpretation. The
most difficult question associated with the minus d con-
stellation is the nature of the “primary” object of libido. In
its deepest meaning, the term probably refers to the mother;
however, for the purpose of interpreting the minus d reac-
tion in the Szondi test, this basic interpretation is not
inclusive enough. Even though this interpretation may
always be at the bottom of every minus d reaction, on the
behavior level individuals with minus d often display
extreme adhesiveness to objects or ideas which — ^at least on
the surface — do not seem to relate to the mother or to any
obvious mother image. From the point of view of test
interpretation it is not necessary to trace the links which,
through various processes of symbolization and displace-
ment, finally might reveal the connection between the
original mother fixation and objects cathected with almost
the , same intensity in the individual’s later life. All that
need be remembered in interpreting the minus d reaction
is that it indicates strong attachment to one particular object
or one idea, in contrast to the desire to possess many objects,
characteristic of individuals associated with plus d reaction.

Since anal characteristics have been mentioned through-
out our discussion of the d factor, and since the symbolic
role of money for anal characters is so widely recognized in
psychoanalysis, something ought to be said about the signifi-

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SZONDI TEST

cance of money in individuals associated with plus d and
minus d reactions respectively. Superficially, stinginess or
overestimation of money as such appears to be characteris-
tic of individuals associated with the plus d reaction. How-
ever, clinging to money, paradoxically, is more characteristic
of those giving minus d. Plus d subjects are active in seeking
ways to earn money primarily as a means to secure other
objects, and may even resort to ruthlessness in the search.
However, since the pursuit of money is not the interest of
individuals associated with minus dj it is all the more difficult
for them to part with the money they have on hand. (The
possibility that the minus d subject cathects money itself, with
all the adhesiveness of his libido, is not excluded).

There are other apparent paradoxes, in minus d subject’s
relationship to material objects. For example, even though
he is indifferent to the accumulation of wealth he may feel
a personal deprivation amounting to trauma if he is forced to
separate from an object, even more so than a typically plus
''d'^ person. In spite of characteristic hoarding, a plus d
subject probably is aware of his ability to replace materials.
On the other hand, sentimental attachment to an object may
make the minus d subject inconsolable at its loss.

I have discussed this one specific problem because of the
apparent inconsistency which is at first impression inherent
in it. The relationship of the minus d to the subject’s atti-
tude toward money was one of those most puzzling problems
in the Szondi test in which pragmatic knowledge preceded
by far a theoretical understanding of the phenomenon, and
only recently have I been able even to this extent to formu-
late a theory which helps to reconcile results which formerly
seemed contradictory.

Among the various diagnostic groups, the minus d occurs
most frequently in hypochondria and in paranoid schizo-
phrenia. This constellation seldom occurs in psychotic
depression. In its relation to social behavior, minus d

THE CONTACT VECTOR 127

can be taken as an attribute to ethical behavior because o£
the idealism and nonaggressive behavior implied in its
dynamics.

Among the various age groups, the minus d constellation
occurs most frequently in adults between twenty and forty.
It is most uncommon in children between seven and nine,
when the plus d reaction prevails.

Plus-minus d

Since plus-minus reactions are by definition always loaded
reactions, they reflect tension in the particular area in
which they occur. The plus-minus d constellation indicates
strong and subjectively experienced tension in the area of
object relationship. There is ambivalence in regard to look-
ing for more and new objects or to clinging to the old ones.
Under all circumstances object relationship as such is an
important problem for individuals yielding a plus-minus d
constellation, and the observable signs through which this
problem becomes noticeable to others in their environment
is that much of their conversation is centered in their present
and past relationship to various persons. In spite of their
great need for intensive attachment and loyalty to one per-
son (minus d), they have a tendency constantly to get involved
in new relationships which might thwart the continuation
of relationships they have established (plus d). The result
is that most of the time they feel insecure in regard to the
permanence of any of their object-relations, which in turn
is the cause for a general feeling of indecision.

The tension indicated by the loading of the plus-minus d
reaction explains why all these subjects can be described as
anal characters, while the ambivalent attitude implied in the
plus-minus direction accounts for the existence of apparently
contradictory anal personality characteristics. The subject
reveals this general ambivalence by such fluctuating traits
as generosity with money in some matters and stinginess in

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SZONDI TEST

Others; exaggeration in self-esteem coupled to feelings of
inferiority; inconsistent idealism and materialism; self will
and defiance coupled to compliance and conformity, and
concurrent desires for privacy and association with large
groups. A number of other inconsistencies in the overt
behavior of subjects with plus-minus d reaction could be
listed. Quite characteristic of them are constant plans to
start something new: to move to a new place, to seek a new
career, etc. These steps may or may not be carried out, but
even when they are, the surrender of the previous status is
slow and is experienced as a painful process. Thus the plus-
minus d constellation gives a certain heaviness to the per-
sonality which handicaps easy locomotion in the life-space.
Yet, from the point of view of any serious pathology, the
plus-minus d seems to be rather a favorable constellation,
most probably because of the self-regulatory function inher-
ent in the plus-minus reaction. The extent to which an
ambivalent reaction indicates conflict in the negative sense
of the term, and to which it indicates a balance between
opposing forces, is a problem common to all the plus-minus
reactions. In the case of the plus-minus d constellation, these
two possibilities seem to resolve into a rather difficult type
of personality structure which counteracts, nevertheless, the
development of serious forms of pathology.

Accordingly the plus-minus d pattern is not particularly
characteristic for any of the usual diagnostic categories. It
is found relatively most frequently in epileptics, which may
account for the general slowness and “stickiness’ ’ of the epi-
leptic character. Among the various groups of criminals
and delinquents, this constellation occurs most frequently in
petty thieves. The fact that even though they are antisocial,
these persons refrain from committing more serious forms
of crimes (robbery for instance) may be due to the moderating
effect of the minus d.

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129

Plus-minus d is the least frequent d factorial constella-
tion in the general population. Its maximum frequency,
fifteen per cent, is found in the youngest group of children
who can be tested, the three to four year olds. This is the
age in which occurs the first real crisis in object relationship,
the period when the ambivalence towards the parents due to
the Oedipus situation reaches its maximum. After this
period the occurrence of plus-minus d decreases and does not
reach a frequency even of ten per cent until the 70-80 year
age group, in which it occurs in about twelve to thirteen
per cent of the cases.

Open d

The open d reaction indicates lack of tension in the area
of object-relationship; in other words, the problem of
whether to hold on to old objects or to search for new is
not particularly important to subjects yielding open d.
However, the fact that “anal” aspects of object relationship
are not important to these individuals does not deny the
importance of the object from the point of view of an
“oral” type of object relationship. Oral object relationship
will be discussed in connection with the m factor.

In common with all other open reactions, open d is the
most difficult d factorial constellation to characterize in terms
of behavior because of the variety of ways in which dis-
charge of actual tension c^n be achieved. It suggests a
generally loose kind of object relationship, in which one
object can be substituted for another rather easily. The
subject himself usually does not make any particular effort
to secure a certain object, but is inclined, rather, to cathect
those objects which are easily available. In contrast to the
“heaviness” of the plus-minus d reaction, open d has some-
thing of an easy-going quality because the person does not
feel the need to accumulate objects or to exert much effort
to keep the object under control. In certain cases this

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130

type of object relationship can be characterized as apathetic
rather than easy-going. It might be found after the actual
loss of a real object, in which case it reflects a lack of concern
and an indifference in regard to objects in general. Thus,
if the rest of the test profile shows certain configuration
open d can even mean an actual state of depression; how-
ever, only in the apathetic sense described above, which is
quite different from the tense and anxious worrying depres-
sion characteristic for the plus d. This apathetic loss of
interest in outside objects occurs more frequently in incipi-
ent catatonic states than in real psychotic depression. In
other instances, if the general configuration of the test
profile shows signs of good adjustment, open d can indicate
good possibilities for intellectual or artistic sublimation since
the person is not tied down through his concern with mate-
rial objects, but can freely devote himself to nonmaterialistic
interests. A possible relationship between tendency for
depression and artistic creativity can be mentioned in this
context; although exploration of the theoretical implica-
tions of the relationship lies beyond the framework of this
manual.* A series of articles by Dr. Harry B. Lee, dealing
with the problem of artistic creativity, elaborates in detail
the above hypothesis.f

In some cases, complete lack of tension in the psychologic
area corresponding to the d factor is caused by the fact
that important components of the early childhood anal-
erotism have not been absorbed, by various processes of
transformation, into personality characteristics, but still

* The data of the author’s unpublished study, mentioned above,
in which the Szondi test was administered to a group of fifty artists,
support this theory.

f Lee, Harry B.: A Theory Concerning Free Creation in the Inven-
tive Arts. Psychiatry, Vol. 3, Number 2, May, 1940. On the Esthetic
States of the Mind. Psychiatry, Vol. 10, Number 3, August 1947. The
Cultural Lag in Aesthetics. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criti-
cism. Vol. VI, No. 2, December, 1947. Art as a Form of Projection.
Presented at the 1948 Annual Meeting of the American Orthopsy-
chiatric Association. ^ ^

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131

retain their significance at the primary anal level. In such
individuals, the actual excretory processes are still cathected
libidinously and serve as a source of pleasure, sometimes
being connected with definite bathroom ceremonies. Since
data in this area about any subject are difficult, if not
impossible, to secure — unless one can obtain psychoanalytic
material regarding the subject — the frequency of the above
characteristics in connection with the occurrence of open d
cannot readily be established. However, I have studied
psychotherapeutic patients who yield open dj through whom
I have learned much about this meaning of the open d
reaction.

The open d is pathodiagnostically significant chiefly in
regard to catatonic schizophrenia, already mentioned in con-
nection with a loss of interest in outside objects, and a
general apathy. We will see that it is not an unusual con-
stellation in certain types of criminals, excluding the most
severe criminals. (In reflecting antisocial behavior, open d
appears with minus m and plus or open s).

Open d is the most frequent d factorial constellation
appearing between the ages of ten and sixty. (In ages less
than ten, plus d is most frequent.) The highest frequency
of open d is reached in young adults between the ages of
eighteen and thirty. This seems to be the age range when
outside objects are evaluated more from the “oral,” pleasure-
giving point of view than from the more aggressive and
possessive anal type of object-relationship.

The m Factor

In interpreting the m factor, we will deal with those per-
sonality characteristics which can be derived from the early
oral phase of psychosexual development. This stage is char-
acterized by the fact that libidinal satisfaction is obtained
mainly through the mouth zone by the act of sucking on
the mother’s breast. Among psychoanalysts it was Abra-

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132

ham * who did most to develop the concept of the “oral
character,” beginning with the sucking impulse, following
up the vicissitudes of the oral drive, and describing how
the satisfaction or frustration of this drive will influence
the social attitudes of the adult. According to Abraham,
the most important step the individual makes towards
acquiring a satisfactory attitude in his social relationships
is to deal successfully with his early oral-erotism. If the
infant’s sucking-pleasure is undisturbed his whole later
attitude toward life will be optimistic, and he will have
a friendly attitude toward his environment. In case there
is overindulgence of the infant’s oral needs, he might
develop later a carefree, indifferent personality, assuming
that somebody will take care of him as his mother did. If,
however, the infant is frustrated in the gratification of his
oral needs, his later personality might reflect either aggres-
sively demanding social attitudes, or erratic and exaggerated
attempts to cling to others.

The information we get about the subject on the basis
of his reactions to portraits of manic patients lies exactly
in the dimension of those personality traits which Abraham
described as having their origin in the oral drive. Thus
the task is again to formulate an acceptable hypothesis which
can account for the fact that portraits of manic patients
can be used as a measuring stick for oral character traits.
In linking the psychodynamics underlying mania with striv-
ings originating in the oral phase of psychosexual develop-
ment, we must rely, of course, on concepts known from
psychoanalysis without, however, suggesting that the follo^v^-
ing theory has been stated per se in psychoanalytic literature
as an interpretation of the psychologic dynamisms underly-
ing mania.f

* Abraham, Karl: Selected papers on psychoanalysis.

fThis qualification might well have been stated in the discussion
of the theory of depression from the point of view of the Szondi test
interpretation.

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133

In considering the types of interpretation we derive from
the various m factorial constellations, we have to assume
that the symptoms of manic psychosis can be traced to the
frustration of the early oral sucking drive. The first mani-
festation of the oral drive is the infant’s sucking on and
clinging to the mother’s breast. In the course of develop-
ment, the oral drive undergoes a number of changes in
its manifestation, and in its place and function within the
total personality. One form of later manifestation is the
need for social contact, the “clinging to society” instead of
clinging to the mother’s breast. In our hypothesis, we
assume that the symptoms of mania, starting with the typical
hypomanic state, develop in those individuals who, in
infancy or early childhood, failed to obtain a satisfactory
amount of pleasure from the original sucking situation.
Whether this frustration was caused primarily by realistic
environmental factors such as the mother’s attitude toward
feeding, or by the constitutional strength of the infant’s
oral drive which necessarily entailed frustration despite the
attitude of the mother, is a question that can be put aside
for the moment. In actuality, these two sets of factors most
probably interact in the way Freud described as the func-
tioning of the complementary series.

Important from our present point of view are the later
consequences of this early oral frustration. In connection
with the m factor, we assume that the restless behavior of
the hypomanic or manic patient (in the state of hyper-
elation and hyperactivity, but not in the state of agitated
aggressive and offensive behavior) represents pathologically
distorted attempts to make up for the oral pleasures he
failed to obtain from the feeding breast in his early child-
hood. The hyperactivity characterizing the incipient stage
of mania is to be understood in this light as a succession
of attempts to extract the maximum amount of pleasure
from the world in general. In the hypomanic state these

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134

attempts take the form of increased interest in the objects
of the environment; the hypomanic person is — so to speak —
overcathecting the outside objects which, temporarily, might
make him feel happy, since the feeling of attachment to
many objects is accompanied by a certain feeling of security,
with the hope that these outside objects will at some time
return the libido invested in them. Thus, the hypomanic
patient is still optimistic because he hopes to draw pleasure
and love he missed in his childhood from object relation-
ships established in his later life. Hence, the characteristic
attitude of expectation in hypomanic persons, or in oral
characters in general. For this reason such individuals
are likely to join many organizations, to make great and
manifold plans, to start new undertakings in their field
of work. The turning point in the apparent behavior of
the manic patient occurs at the time of realization of his
false premises: when he recognizes that new objects of
his libido will not live up to his exaggerated expectations
and will not furnish the necessary amount of gratification
to compensate for pleasure and love missed in childhood.
This new disappointment breaks down the friendly and
optimistic attitude of the patient and brings about his out-
bursts of manic rage and aggressive attempts to destroy the
objects which have “betrayed"’ him« again.

On the basis of what is known about the interpretation
of the m factor, we must assume that the stimulus portraits
reflect the first phase of the above described “manic” proc-
ess. We must assume, that is, that the subject reacts to
the need to cling to objects for the sake of obtaining pleasure
and support, as expressed through the portraits of the m
factor.

The various forms this oral clinging can take, from, lit-
erally, oral gratifications such as drinking, eating, smoking,
and talking, to all the sublimated forms of the oral type of
object relationship including social and artistic gratifications.

THE CONTACT VECTOR I35

will be discussed in connection with the various m factorial
constellations.

However, before going into the interpretation of the single
constellations, I want to summarize the characteristics of
the m factorial or oral type of object relationship by con-
trasting the oral type briefly, with the d factorial, or anal,
type of object relationship.

m Factorial
(Oral) Object Relation

Objects wanted for the pleasure
to be derived from them; for the
support they can give, for ding-
ing to them.

Essentially passive relation to the
object. Related to the h factorial
object relationship.

Impatience and restlessness in re-
gard to reaching a goal object.

Ability to give love and emotional
support to the love object (through
identification with the giving
mother and through identification
with the person who needs love
and support).

More possibility for sublimation
without resorting to the defense-
mechanism of reaction forma-
tion (no exaggerated anticath-
exis needed in sublimating oral
impulses).

Plus m

The plus m reaction indicates identification with the need
for external objects for the sake of “oral” gratification.
Plus m alone gives no reference for the primitivity or sub-
limitation of this need: the constellation of the remaining
seven factors determines whether this oral need to cling
to objects for the sake of enjoyment and support will mani-
fest itself in primary oral activities, such as talking, eating.

d Factorial

(Anal) Object Relation

Objects wanted for the sake of
owning them; to accumulate them
and to control them.

Active, manipulative relation to
the object. Related to the s fac-
torial object relationship.

Perserverance and persistence in
regard to reaching a goal.

Tendency to overwhelm love-
object with material gifts.

More need for resorting to reac-
tion-formation in order to over-
come the originally aggressive
attitude toward objects; hence,
the compulsive quality of “anal*'
type of love.

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drinking, smoking, or in sublimated form, such as a drive
to cling to objects for either artistic or intellectual pleasure.
In actuality, these various levels of manifesting the basic
oral need often appear concurrently in the same person;
for example, in the person who likes to eat and smoke while
pursuing intellectual work. Subjects for whom the plus m
is a characteristic reaction may be described as oral char-
acters, and the typical pattern of their object-relationship
may be described in terms of all those characteristics which
were listed in the lefthand column of the summary of the
oral versus the anal type of object relation. Thus plus m
implies a basically passive attitude towards the love object,
the purpose being to enjoy the object and to lean on it for
support. There is a need for dependence which, if not
too strong, is an asset in establishing social relations. How-
ever, if this need reaches more than optimal intensity (four
or more choices in plus m)^ then this clinging to objects
acquires the quality of anxiousness about the possibility
of losing the object. It should be remembered that the
anxiousness of plus m is different from the worrying about
the possible loss of the object mentioned in connection
with plus d. In the latter case, the person is worried about
the possibility of a material loss, while a plus m person is
afraid to lose the emotional support inherent in the object-
relationship. Plus m generally indicates a warm social atti-
tude and is given by subjects who not only are in need of
positive emotions from others, but who also are able to
give love and affection to others. Although this constella-
tion, particularly if strongly loaded, is a sign of an unsatisfied
oral need, it still implies the essentially optimistic attitude
that the subject has not given up hope of obtaining grati-
fication from external objects. As a matter of fact, it appears
that a certain amount of tension in this area is desirable;
or in other words, it appears that there exists an optimal
amount of frustration in regard to the primary oral impulses

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137

which results in the sustaining of a need to establish new
social contacts. This state is indicated on the test by two
to three plus m’s. Accordingly, plus m is rather a counter-
indication for antisocial behavior. This is probably the only
constellation among all the eight factors in any position
about which I dare to make such a categorical statement:
well-adjusted adults who are able to form and maintain
satisfactory social relations, are expected to give plus m.
Well-adjusted, that is, in the sense that they themselves
feel content and have found their place in society as well
as within a smaller ingroup of people, such as family or
close friends. This specification is needed because — ^as will
be seen later — one does find highly sublimating and socially
valuable individuals with other than plus m constellations;
however, in those individuals the subjective feeling of con-
tentedness and the ability to derive pleasure from close
interpersonal relationships are missing.

Plus m is generally found in adults of the professional
groups and is also the most usual m constellation in artistic
sublimation achieved by writers, painters, sculptors, musi-
cians, or those who form the appreciative public for any
artistic production or creation. These findings bear out the
psychoanalytic theory which considers artistic sublimation,
creation as well as intensive enjoyment, a successful sublima-
tion of the oral component drive of sexuality; successful,
first of all, since it is a socially positive channelization, and
successful from the subjective point of view since the cling-
ing to artistic or intellectual values is safer than the clinging
to particular individuals whom one can lose in reality. The
latter interpretation of plus m is usually correlated with
minus h and minus s and a general plus tendency in the
Sch vector. Plus m is infrequent in serious forms of pathol-
ogy. It can be found in neurotic disturbances more fre-
quently than in psychotic disturbances or than in any form
of antisocial behavior. The connection between strong

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plus m and anxiety has been mentioned above. Its highest
frequency is found in hypochondriac anxiety and in adult
stuttering. It is also frequent in homosexuals, perhaps sup-
porting the relationship of homosexuality to fixation at the
oral level of psychosexual development. It also points to
the inner correlation between the h and the m factors already
mentioned.

The frequency of plus m in the various age groups shows
great fluctuation. It is not very frequent in young children
although the earlier we are able to administer the test
to a child the greater is the probability of obtaining plus m
(still clinging to the mother in reality around the age of
three). Plus m is most unusual (not more than about 3
per cent) in children between six and nine years old. This
disappearance of plus m in children coincides with the great
increase in plus d reactions, pointing toward the two facts
that children of this age have given up (or were forced to
give up) the closest attachment to their mother, and that
they are more interested in collecting and manipulating
objects than in continuing to cling to the mother or to a
mother substitute. Plus m occurs again more frequently
around puberty, and becomes the most usual m factorial
constellation from the age of seventeen on. This distribu-
tion is most probably due to the fact that oral impulses
lend themselves relatively easily to sublimation through
everyday social contacts. The preponderance of plus m over
the other m factorial constellations is particularly marked
in advanced age between sixty and eighty, which indicates
the anxious clinging to objects for support characteristic of
older persons.

Minus m

Negative choices in the m factor represent a denial of
the need to lean on others. They indicate a frustration
of the early oral needs but, opposing the still optimistic

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139

attitude characteristic of plus m, subjects yielding the
minus m reaction are those who have given up hope of
compensating for early frustration through new social con-
tacts. Instead, there is withdrawal and a certain sadness
and coldness in interpersonal relations. Minus m subjects
are lonely even though they may feel a great need for
dependence on and gratification from external objects.

In adults, minus m is always a sign of unh appiness,
although in favorable configuration it might still accom-
pany socially positive solutions of this basically negativistic
attitude. Thus an individual might feel basically isolated
in society, especially in regard to smaller ingroups, but still
act in a highly ethical way even in regard to helping others
to avoid the same fate he knows from experience. In these
cases, minus m appears in conjunction with minus h and
minus s and, usually, plus e. However, in these individuals
the helping attitude has usually all the characteristics of a
reaction formation, and the exaggerated and sometimes
aggressive way in which it is carried out betrays the strong
anticathexis which has to be invested in the assumption
of the role of “helper’’ and “giver” by those who are them-
selves in greatest need of support and love. Thus one can
see that in the case of plus m it is psychologically easier to
sublimate the unsatisfied oral need than it is in the case
of minus m. This difference might be due either to an
original difference in the strength of the primary frustration,
or to a different attitude toward this primary frustration. In
the first case, there is an acknowledgment of this need,
and the plus m subject shows positive attempts to make up
for the original loss, while subjects with minus m deny to
themselves the existence of the need to lean on others for
the sake of obtaining pleasure and support. This attitude
by itself implies a certain degree of anticathexis or, in popu-
lar words, a certain amount of self-deception. The second
“dose” of anticathexis is needed when a minus m person

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not only denies his own need for support but tries to
identify himself with the role of the ‘‘supporter” without
acknowledging that what he really expects is love and aflEec-
tion in return (the latter is true for plus m individuals who
are also able to identify themselves with the giving mother).
The outcome of this whole complicated and unconscious
process, which takes place when a minus m person succeeds
in channelizing his basic frustration into a helping social
attitude, is an ascetic quality of the character which might
enable the person to achieve high humanistic goals. Such
individuals have a high frustration tolerance for realistic
disappointments in life, since they never allow themselves
consciously to expect much from life in the first place.
The frustration tolerance of plus m individuals is consid-
erably less, just because of their optimistic expectations.

The socially positive solution of the minus m constellation
has been discussed to this degree because it represents an
extreme and a rare outcome of the oral frustration indicated
by this reaction. Our discussion of the anticathexis and
reaction formation needed in order to maintain the ascetic
altruism of minus is borne out by the findings that actu-
ally minus m is the most frequent m factorial constellation
for seriously antisocial (criminal) behavior. The logical
implication of this finding is that in most cases destructively
antisocial behavior has to be considered to be a reaction,
or rather a revenge, on the external objects which fail to
satisfy the person’s intense need for oral gratification. Thus
the frustrated need for dependence would be the dynamic
force underlying the “need” for destruction. The same
dynamic process was described in the beginning of this
chapter in our discussion of the turning point in the appar-
ently elated behavior of the manic patient, during which
we oflEered as explanation for the sudden outbreak of manic
rage that it occurs when the patient realizes the futility
of his attempts to extract satisfactory amounts of oral grati-

THE CONTACT VECTOR I41

fication from libidinously cathected objects of his environ-
ment. The results of the test show that actually minus m
is the most characteristic m factorial constellation for manic
patients in their antisocial phase. The third pathodiagnostic
group in which the minus m reaction is the most frequent
is represented by epileptic patients approaching the outbreak
of seizure. The similarity between the reactions of active
criminals, manic psychotics, and epileptics before seizure
is apparent in practically all the eight factors.

There is one group of neurotics in which minus m is a
frequent reaction; that is in conversion hysteria. In these
cases the total test pattern resembles that of those subjects
who were described as ascetic and altruistic despite their
strong oral frustration. Conversion symptoms are most
probably related to the basic repression of oral needs in
these individuals. ‘

Minus m is most usual in children under puberty, par-
ticularly in the seven to eight year olds. The relinquish-
ment of the strongest ties with the mother, which coincides
with the highest frequency of the minus has been dis-
cussed in connection with the high frequency of plus d
and the infrequency of plus m in this age group. Actually
this is one group in which the usual interpretation of the
minus m has to be somewhat modified since it does not
imply the same kind of unhappiness and isolation as it
does in adults, unless it is strongly loaded (four or more),
in which case it does indicate that the child is unusually
lonesome and unhappy. Otherwise it corresponds to the
“physiologic’’ process of growing up which involves neces-
sarily a gradual detachment from the mother, and it is
not even desirable that the same clinging attitude should
be transferred immediately towards new objects. In “nor-
mal” development there is an intermediate period (the
latency period) when the child gets satisfaction from other
than oral types of object attachment, such as curiosity in

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the construction of objects, exploration of their practical
usefulness, etc. Then, in puberty and in adolescence when
various social contacts and intellectual enjoyments can take
the place of the original clinging to the mother, the fre-
quency of minus m decreases with a simultaneous increase
of the plus m. Least frequent is minus m in old age.

Plus-Minus m

The plus-minus m position of the m factor expresses the
subject’s ambivalence in regard to dining or not clinging
to objects of the environment. Because of this ambivalence,
it reflects a critical state in the object-relationship. Sub-
jectively, this state of attempting to derive enjoyment from
the environment (plus m) while denying the possibility
of this enjoyment (minus m)^ results in a feeling of dis-
satisfaction, even more so than in the case of completely
minus m. In the latter, there is at least no more conflict
and there is a solution, even though in the negative sense
of resignation. In the case of plus-minus m, however, the
indecision whether or not to give up unsuccessful attempts
to obtain support and pleasure from objects of the environ-
ment, is more energy-consuming and depressing. Another
explanation for the feeling of greater dissatisfaction and
depression in plus-minus m subjects than there is in minus m
subjects is that in the former instance the plus m com-
ponent indicates that there is much less possibility of resort-
ing to the defense mechanism of reaction-formation than
there is in the case of a completely minus m. In other words,
plus minus m subjects do not deceive themselves by denying
their need to cling for support and love: they merely expe-
rience their disability to secure or maintain such satisfactory
relationship. This is again one of the rare single factorial
constellations which has definite diagnostic value in itself,
in whatever configuration it occurs; namely, it always indi-
cates an unsatisfactory object-relationship with subjectively

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.experienced frustration in this sphere. The general char-
acterization of plus-minus reactions (see Chapter IV) in
regard to their implying an ambivalence at the conscious
or at least close to the conscious level of thinking, is particu-
larly true in case of plus-minus m. According to my expe-
rience with individuals giving plus-minus m, whose per-
sonality I know well from therapeutic work with them or
otherwise, this frustrating object relationship could be traced
back in practically all cases to a basically undecided sexual
orientation. They were individuals who actually expe-
rienced their basic bisexuality, thus being unable to derive
satisfaction from either hetero- or homosexual object
cathexes.

Among thcL well-defined clinical groups, plus-minus m
is most frequent in compulsion neurosis and in depression.
Individuals entertaining suicidal phantasies frequently give
this m factorial constellation. The psychodynamic explana-
tion for all these outstanding frequencies has been implied
in the foregoing.

Plus-minus m occurs most frequently in small children,
3 to 4 years of age, and again in old age, beyond eighty
years. In all the age groups between these two extremes,
plus-minus m is the least frequent of all the four possible
positions in the m factor. The two outstanding frequencies
refer most probably to the crises in regard to clinging to
objects at the height of the Oedipal phase (3 to 4 years),
as well as in senile regression.

Open m

The drained reaction in the m factor shows that oral
tension is continuously discharged, indicating that oral
character traits are a part of the manifest behavior rather
than a dynamic source of energy in the unconscious layers
of the personality. Just what form this discharging of oral
need takes on the behavior level is hard to say — ^a state-

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ment I feel compelled to repeat in the case of almost every
open reaction. Usually it implies the excessive indulgence
in some form of actual oral activity, such as overeating,
drinking, talking. From the point of view of psychosexual
development, it means that the oral component drive of
sexuality has not subsided in its importance in favor of the
supremacy of genital sexuality. In other words, open m,
in adults, is an indication that genital primacy has not been
completely established, thus being a sign of sexual imma-
turity. In individuals with constant open the stimula-
bility of the oral zone retains too much of its original
strength and importance within the structure of the total
personality. In the primarily sexual sense, in such indi-
viduals the oral excitability, instead of furnishing “fore-
pleasure* ’ which helps to bring about complete genital
gratification, still remains and end in itself. This lack of
mature sexual organization is usually associated with certain
infantile characteristics of the personality, the sexual origin
of which is not apparent unless it caii be perceived by psy-
choanalysis. These infantile traits are reflected in the kind
of object relationships the person is likely to establish. In
case of open m, the person is likely to establish numerous
such relationships which, on the surface, give the impression
that the person is finding his place easily in any situation.
However, on closer examination, one finds that none of
these relationships is really intensive and there is an easy
interchangeability of objects. The typically open m person
can be characterized as trying to “eat up“ the world, thereby
attempting to establish quickly as many object relationships
as possible to derive maximum amounts of enjoyment from
the objects. This intense craving for objects, characteristic
of open m, is different from the need to cling to an object,
as described in connection with plus m. The latter is of a
definitely more passive nature; in open m the original oral-
sadistic elements are more pronounced. The restless trying

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145

out of one object after the other, due to an anxiousness
that something might otherwise be missed, can also be
derived from the basic ambivalence characteristic for the
original oral-sadistic phase of psychosexual development. It
is obvious that even though these subjects, at first glance,
might give the impression of being exuberant, “happy-go-
lucky” individuals, they are basically dissatisfied because of
the lack of mature, unambivalent relationship to one definite
love-object which can be reached only at the stage of genital
maturity. This genital immaturity is the root of the appar-
ent contradiction in experimental findings that open m is
characteristic of the superficially charming, apparently most
sociable bons vivants^ as well as of those who are weary of
all these exaggerated, yet basically unsatisfactory, attempts to
secure pleasure, and are ready to consider the possibility
of suicide as a way out of this turmoil.

In the socially positive forms of solutions, open m can
be found rather frequently in writers, actors, public speak-
ers. The pathologic significance of open m has been implied
in the characterization of this position. Thus, it is found
in cases of sexual immaturity and in those who have a
tendency for oral perversion, in certain types of unstable
“acting out” psychopaths, and frequently in those cases of
anxiety hysteria in which anxiety manifests itself in fear
of disability to enjoy the world fully enough. Belonging to
this group are the gamblers, avid nightclub goers or, in gen-
eral, all those individuals who feel uncomfortable unless
every free minute is filled with plans promising enjoyment.

Among the various age groups, the highest frequency of
open m is found in puberty and between forty and sixty
years of age. (Theoretically, it ought to be a typical reac-
tion of the youngest children; however, the corresponding
age group is below the age limit at which the test can be
administered.) The two highest points in frequency might
be indicative of the greediness of children in puberty in

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regard to enjoying the world, and also of the reinforcement
of this hedonistic tendency in the later years of middle-age.

C Vectorial Constellations

There are nine patterns of the d and m constellations
which have to be described briefly, because each of them
refers to a characteristic way the subject relates himself to
objects of his environment. More variations are discussed
separately here than in the case of the P vector because of
the special importance of anal and oral character traits in
determining the person’s social attitudes and his general
type of contact with reality. Again, the meaning of the
remaining seven C vectorial configurations can be derived
from the interpretations of the nine individually described
C vector patterns.

As in the previous vectors, the presentation will follow
the degree of clarity of the personality characteristics cor-
responding to the various d and m patterns.

Minus d with plus m

The situation in the C vector is similar to that in the P
vector, in that those constellations in which the two factors
point into opposite directions actually indicate that the two
respective drives operate in the same direction. In the case
of minus d with plus both factors express the need to
hold on and cling to an object strongly cathected with libido.
One could call this the most “faithful” constellation, since
the minus d indicates that the person is attached to one
specific object and is not in constant search for new ones
(which would be indicated by plus d)^ while the plus m
shows that the need to cling for love and support is accepted.
It also shows that there is still a basically optimistic attitude,
and the environment is considered in an emotionally posi-
tive way as offering possibilities for “oral” gratification.
Individuals with minus d and plus m are fixated to the

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147

“primary” object in the sense discussed in connection with
minus d. Thus it does not necessarily imply an obvious
attachment to either of the parents but means that some-
thing (a person, an idea, or a thing) is cathected with the
same intensity as was the first main object of libido (always
the mother or the person who takes the place of the mother).
At the same time, when minus d indicates this strong attach-
ment to a person or idea, the plus m shows that, whatever
the object of this strong libido cathexis is, it is certainly
something which can be actually enjoyed and to which it
is possible to “cling.” Enjoying and clinging in case of
this particular C vectorial configuration, has always a non-
aggressive and sometimes — depending on the loadedness of
minus d — a. definitely passive character. Individuals who
give this pattern do not exert physical effort to assure them-
selves of the possession of the highly cathected object. In
most cases, it is not even a material object but rather a
person or an idea, and not infrequently the mere idea of
a person, to which they are faithfully attached. Thus hold-
ing on to such “objects” of libido does not necessitate
physical action or grabbing but rather an ability to sub-
limate and to derive enjoyment from nontangible values.
This statement is supported by the findings that minus d
with plus m is discovered rarely in the lower occupational
levels and practically never in criminals, nor in asocial psy-
chotics. It occurs frequently in fairly well-functioning
adults, mostly in professional groups to whom the kind of
work they do is more important than the financial gains
of the work. In other words these are the persons we
usually call “idealistic.” They might experience difficulties
in regard to outward success, because of the passivity inher-
ent in this configuration, particularly if associated with
minus s. They are conservative in the sense of disliking
change, and being forced to leave a situation to which they
are accustomed is experienced as painful. These reactions

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follow from the adhesive quality of libido-cathexis char-
acteristic for minus d-plus m individuals. Once an object
is really cathected it is practically never given up. Even
though there might be no outward signs of adherence
between the subject and his object of libido, on closer exami-
nation one finds that the attachment is still there and not
even in a diminished form. And the particularly interesting
characteristic of these subjects is that such unrealistic attach-
ments are not experienced as serious frustrations, since they
are able to derive satisfaction from intangible ideas. To
them, the thought of the object has nearly the same emo-
tional value as its possession. This is another illustration
of the exaggerated loyalty and high sublimating ability so
characteristic of subjects associated with this C vector pattern.

This pattern, as we have said, is rarely found in psychoses.
It may be associated with various forms of neuroses because
of the basically incestuous fixation implied in its deepest
interpretation. However, even in those cases it may be
interpreted as indicating a socially positive attitude and
satisfactory ethical control. (Minus d with plus m is fre-
quently associated with plus e and minus hy in the P
vector.)

The pattern is typically adult; most unusual if it occurs
in children. Its frequency is fairly stable from adolescence
to old age. It occurs rarely in childhood, probably because
it indicates a sublimated (or transposed) form of attach-
ment to an original “primary” object (the mother or
mother-substitute) which the child still possesses. And a
need for attachment so intensive as indicated by minus d
with plus m can rarely be satisfied in the most realistic
normal contact with actual parents.

Plus d with Minus m

The plus dy minus m pattern in the C vector is in every
way the opposite of minus d, plus m. It means that there

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149

is no intensive attachment to one specific object of libido:
rather, the person who yields this pattern eagerly pur-
sues many objects. This aggressive search is assumed, on
the basis of clinical observations, to be the reaction from
forced relinquishment of attachment to the most important
“primary” object (the parents). To these subjects, the
specificity of the objects is not nearly so important as the
quantity. This configuration indicates definitely activity,
and frequently aggression, in contrast to the physical pas-
sivity characteristic of the minus dj plus m. Individuals
giving plus minus m are anxious to manipulate and master
the objects in their environment; however, the minus m
component indicates that, actually, there is no pleasure
derived from all this activity. (This interpretation needs
modification when this C vector pattern is found in chil-
dren between the ages of six and eight.) Plus d, minus m
indicates a generally realistic attitude toward the world
insofar as real objects are considered important, but this
materialistic viewpoint is associated with a certain pessimism
toward the world as a potential source of enjoyment. The
individual, that is, is able to secure a number of real objects,
but is unable to enjoy them. There is little possibility
for sublimated forms of enjoyment in subjects yielding this
constellation in the C vector. In the clinically symptomless
population, this pattern is obtained mostly in the lower
occupational levels, frequently by unskilled laborers who
work hard and without enjoyment, with little opportunity
or ability to derive pleasure from things in general except
on the most concrete level. Among individuals belonging
to higher occupational or professional groups, the pattern
is more an indication of depressed mood, and generally,
of a tendency actively to accumulate and master objects.
When the pattern is associated with plus 5, these indi-
viduals can be ruthless in pursuit of their goals. Because
of the lack of intensive attachment to any one object, person.

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or idea, these subjects move through their environment more
easily, and change more flexibly from one situation to
another, than do those who yield the opposite pattern
(minus d with plus m) in the C vector.

The pathologic significance of the configuration refers
first of all to antisocial behavior. In any form of crime,
this is one of the most frequent C vectorial patterns, usually
associated with plus s and minus e to yield the typical pic-
ture of an anal-sadistic individual. Moreover, similarity
between the test reactions of criminals and epileptics has
been found in this C vector configuration.

In certain configurations of the total test pattern, when
there are reactions indicative of repression (primarily minus
hy and minus k), plus minus m can occur in conjunction
with hysteric symptoms. The psychodynamics underlying
this experimental finding refer most probably to the basic
asocial attitude of hysterics, and to their inability to form
pleasurable object relationships.

The curve of age distribution of plus d, minus m, points
to a trend exactly opposite to the curve of minus d, plus m,
although the absolute frequency in the population of the
former is about three times the frequency of the latter.
Plus d with minus m is the most frequent C vectorial con-
figuration given by children from approximately four to
nine years of age. From prepuberty on it gradually decreases
in frequency, becoming one of the rarest patterns in those
beyond the age of sixty. Possible reasons for the high fre-
quency of this pattern in childhood have been discussed,
in connection with the age distributions of the two com-
ponent elements of this configuration, in the section con-
cerning plus d and in the section concerning minus m. To
recapitulate briefly: this is the age at which, due to external
and inner reasons, children are forced to loosen their attach-
ment to the mother and to “stand on their own feet.” It
is the period at which they explore the possible use of a

THE CONTACT VECTOR I5I

number of environmental objects, and acquire skills to
manipulate these objects. The well-known childhood habit
of collecting various objects is yet another phenomenon
understandable from the attitude implied in plus d with
minus m. Although in this age group the plus dj minus m
pattern does not indicate a socially negative attitude nor a
tendency for depression in the sense indicated for adults,
it nevertheless most probably reflects the fact that children
of this age do feel lonesome and to a certain extent frustrated
“orally” as a part of the physiologic process of growing up.
The beginnings of “gang” formation, around the age of
seven, which usually has a slight antisocial tinge, though
still in a playful way, may also be regarded as a reaction
against the world of frustrating adults, which fits well into
the interpretation of the corresponding plus d and minus m.

Minus d with Minus m

The minus d^ minus m pattern in the C vector occurs
rather infrequently in the general population. Neverthe-
less it demands discussion because it corresponds to a type
of personality so clearly definable. It indicates fixation on a
certain object (minus d) with simultaneous negation of the
need to cling to this object (minus m). The result of this
inner contradiction is a restless tension and a general feel-
ing of detachment from reality. This detachment does not
necessarily result in pathologic lack of contact with reality,
although minus d^ minus m is a relatively frequent con-
figuration in acute psychoses.

If the rest of the test pattern reveals a good balance
between the factors, minus d, minus m can mean that the
person, subjectively detached from everyday reality, is able
to live on a “higher” plane of humanistic idealism. How-
ever, this interpretation is valid only when this pattern of
the C vector appears in conjunction with minus h and
minus s^ and there is a plus tendency in both factors of the

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152

Sch vector. Individuals yielding this unusual combination
of reactions are deeply unrealistic, but rational, in that intel-
lectually and practically they act in accordance with the
expected laws of reality, while emotionally they reject these
laws together with the conventional scale of values. Thus,
within the limits of reality, they are basically nonconforming
and autistic. The unconscious psychodynamics behind this
attitude concern a reconciliation to a frustrating situation
in which there is realization of the fact that the love-object
which is still all-important is not available, while there is
no attempt to search for a substitute. Subjects in this group
have an ascetic quality of self-denial and a high tolerance
for frustration. In contrast to the optimistic attitude cor-
responding to minus d, plus m, whereby the individual also
basically fixated on a love-object not attainable is never-
theless able to transpose this love to an abstract level and
derive enjoyment from this sublimation, subjects with the
minus d, minus m configuration deny the importance of
enjoyment altogether. Under unusual circumstances, this
disinterest in pleasure might give these individuals unusual
strength in regard to self-sacrifice, bearing out the well-
known signs of exaggeration characteristic of all behavior
resulting from reaction formation.

As we have mentioned, this configuration in the C vector
is found frequently in psychoses, particularly in the begin-
ning stages, indicating immediate loss of contact with reality.
Minus minus m forms the greater part of an important
syndrome on the test, which usually is referred to as the
“block of irreality” and consists of minus p (unconscious
projection), minus d, and minus m. Among the neurotic
symptoms, diffuse anxiety occurs most frequently with this
pattern in the C vector.

The curve of age distribution of this configuration shows
two peaks: the first, which is the lower of the two, occurs
in young children; the second, in adulthood. This pattern

THE CONTACT VECTOR I53

is least frequent in adolescence and in old age. In young
children, the pattern usually appears as part of the “block
of irreality,” corresponding to the age of infantile autism,
which is an expected phase of development.* In adults,
it is a sign of irrealistic resignation. The rareness of this
C vectorial pattern in adolescents is understandable, since
adolescents definitely have outgrown the stage at which
autistic withdrawal from frustrating reality is permissible
under normal circumstances, but have not reached the age
at which they need to resort to arbitrary self-denial. The
psychic energy needed in order to maintain the anticathexes
necessary for the latter attitude explains the observation
that elderly people do not reveal this energy-consuming
mechanism.

Plus d with Plus m

In contrast to the irrealistic social attitude characteristic
of the minus d, minus m configuration in the C vector, the
plus dj plus m configuration could be called the “block of
reality,” plus d and plus m being the two most important
component factors. This pattern indicates that the material
objects of the world, as well as interpersonal relationships,
are valued highly. The behavior of these subjects is appar-
ently most sociable, yet subjectively they experience diffi-
culties because too many objects (in the sense of material
objects as well as person or ideas) of the environment seem
equally desirable. Expressed in Lewinian terms: there is
a conflict situation in which the person has to choose between
two or more objects representing equally positive valence,
so that frustration is unavoidable since in actuality only
one of these objects can be chosen. This multiorientation
of the libido explains the greediness of these subjects in
regard to securing more and more objects, and establishing
more and more relationships, since anal and oral needs

* Piaget, Jean: The Child's Conception of the World. New York,
Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1929.

SZONDI TEST

154

equally are accepted. Objects are wanted so that they may
be mastered (plus d) sls well as enjoyed (plus m). This
pattern in the C vector accompanies a definite tendency
for competitiveness, since the possessions of others are desired
as fully as possessions attained. Yet this tendency for envy
and insatiability does not have antisocial manifestations
of the kind described in connection with plus d and minus m,
since in the configuration under discussion the plus m is a
kind of safeguard against harmful, overtly aggressive behav-
ior. Rather, subjects associated with this configuration are
over-eager and anxious not to miss anything in life; although
they might experience the desife to step over others, the
socially positive qualities implied in plus which psycho-
logically consist of needs to be loved and to win support,
keep this desire within socially acceptable limits. Even the
term “greediness” in these individuals must often be under-
stood as primarily nonmaterialistic, since it is often mani-
fested in attempts to accumulate a great quantity of knowl-
edge in diverse fields. Tendency to acquire the skills of
several occupations or to change professions frequently, is
characteristic of subjects in this group.

The pathologic significance of this C vector pattern refers
mostly to the feeling of insufficiency inherent in the mech-
anism which is the consequence of the tendency to under-
take more tasks than can be carried out in reality. This
can result in various neurotic symptoms which have the
common characteristics of hyper-activity and difficulty in
concentrating, rather than the withdrawal associated with
minus d^ minus m. In primarily sexual disturbances, this
C pattern is found frequently in bisexual individuals, in
whom multiorientation of the libido implies that persons
of either sex are cathected with equal intensity. The result
of this bisexual orientation is, also, the feeling that no
object can yield gratification by itself, while simultaneous
attachment to several objects necessarily implies frustrations
of another sort.

THE CONTACT VECTOR

155

Plus dj plus m is found most frequently in old age, and
least frequently in children. In old age, it might reflect
the regressive disintegration of sexuality into its pregenital
component drives of anal and oral needs. It also corre-
sponds to the concern in elderly individuals about their
relationship to objects (including persons) in their environ-
ment rather than the structuring of their own egos. (Experi-
mental results supporting this statement will be discussed
in connection with the configurations in the Sch vector and
their frequencies in the various age groups.)

Open d with Plus m

The open plus m constellation can be understood on
the basis of the configuration just discussed if — to use a
mathematical metaphor — ^from the previous configuration
we subtract the interpretation corresponding to the plus d
component. The remainder, the open d, plus m pattern
contains the elements of the sublimated oral needs (plus m)
without being accompanied by a tension in the area cor-
responding to the need for a possessive, anal type object
relationship (open d). This lack of any tension, in the
plus as well as in the minus direction, in the area correspond-
ing to anal needs accounts for the characteristic passivity
of subjects with open d and plus m toward objects in their
environment. (It should be remembered that in the case
of any open reaction “no tension" refers to lack of tension
indicated on the test profile as compared to other test factors
in which tension is indicated by the number of choices,
and not to an absolute lack of tension in the particular
area of the personality.) The open d indicates that there
is no search for new objects, nor is the person attached
strongly to the primary object or to any other object which
might have taken its place during the course of develop-
ment. The lack of strong attachment to ,any object, indi-
cated by the draining of the d factor, refers only to the

SZONDl TEST

156

lack of the anal type of interest in objects; in other words,
there is no drive in regard to actively manipulating and
controlling objects, but this does not imply the lack of
the “oral” need for objects. Quite the contrary is true for
persons who give open dj plus m; namely, there is a strong
need to cling to objects for love, support, and enjoyment
(tension in plus m). These are individuals who can be
described in psychoanalytic terms as “oral characters.”
Depending on the intensity (loadedness) of the plus m, this
oral need to cling to objects can manifest itself in socially
most desirable forms of optimistic and nonaggressive atti-
tudes, or — in cases in which the plus m is strongly loaded —
the clinging to an object might acquire a quality of anxious-
ness, a fear about the possibility of losing the object. This
anxiousness is different from the worrying about the pos-
sibility of losing an object as described in connection with
the plus in which it referred to an anxiety about losing
a possession, or losing control over a part of the environ-
ment; in other words, to anxiety about inability to assert
one’s strength and power. In anxiety associated with high
plus rriy there is no question of power involved; the person
is simply anxious about losing the psychologic support which
the object of his libido has meant to him. These subjects
are frustrated in their oral needs, but instead of reconciling
themselves to this frustration, they constantly try to find
ways to gratify this need, and the fact that they give plus m,
and not minus shows that they are able to derive enjoy-
ment from oral types of object relationship even though
they might feel that the amount is insufficient. In social
contact, these subjects are pleasant and, because of the reali-
zation and acceptance of their own need for love and sup-
port, they are also able to identify themselves with the role
of the donor of such emotions. Because they lack energy
to secure specific objects (open d), individuals with this
C vector pattern are rather inclined to cathect those objects

THE CONTACT VECTOR I57

in their environment which are easily available, and once
cathected, they cling to them. Once an object-relationship
has been established, they experience a certain inertia against
any change in the situation; however, if the change is
unavoidable, new relationships similar to the previous rela-
tionship, are established rather easily, owing to the inherent
need of these individuals to find objects (“object” always
implying persons) to cling to, and their basically hedonistic
attitude in that they want to enjoy the world. The frustra-
tion tolerance of subjects with open d, plus m, is low. They
do not want to suffer and usually they are able to structure
their lives in a way that actually they do not need to. Their
usually good capacity for sublimation is one of the main
reasons that even under apparently unfavorable circum-
stances, they are still able to derive some enjoyment, since
enjoyment on this sublimated level does not depend on
the possession of material objects or on realistic attach-
ments to persons, but rather on the possession of abstract
ideals or values which can not be lost by changing external
circumstances. Whether or not such abstract values were
cathected originally because of an underlying fear of expo-
sure to frustrations if the libido were to be invested in
more tangible objects which could be easily lost is an open
question, but by all means a conceivable possibility. The
genetic development of these subjects usually shows that
they did get much love in childhood, which might account
not only for their basically optimistic attitude in later life,
but also for their sometimes inordinate need for supportive
love even as adults.

This pattern in the C vector is frequently found in
so-called well-functioning and fairly happy individuals who,
besides a general positive attitude to society, feel them-
selves also a part of a more closely knit ingroup, such as
family or group of close friends. Tracing through occu-
pational levels from hard physical labor to the professions

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158

requiring greatest degrees of artistic or scientific sublima-
tion, we find a steady increase in the frequency of the
open dj plus m configuration. In my study of various groups
of artists, musicians, and writers, this has been by far the
most frequent pattern in the C vector.

The most important pathologic significance of this con-
stellation lies in the proneness for anxious clinging, men-
tioned above, which, in the event that there are other signs
for anxiety on the profile (plus h, strong minus hy, minus k)^
can result in obviously neurotic symptoms. Agoraphobia —
although a rare symptom in its most clearcut form — ^is char-
acteristically associated with the above pattern. The com-
bination of a strong plus h with plus m is always a sign
indicating the subject’s intense need of dependence. If
this correlation of reactions is found in adults, it can be
interpreted as genital immaturity and a fixation on the
original parent-child relationship pattern. Another group
in which this constellation is frequent is represented by adult
stutterers, the underlying dynamics of this finding being most
probably identical with the dynamics described.

The open plus m is one of the three most frequent
C vectorial configurations in the general population (in all
the sixteen possible variations in which the two factors of
the vector can be combined.) Most frequently it is found
in old age, although it is frequent in adults, and not infre-
quent in adolescents. It becomes increasingly rare in the
younger age groups, until its occurrence in young children
is most unusual. The rarity of this configuration in child-
hood can be understood if one thinks of the children’s
strong need to attach themselves to the mother in reality,
which need can not be gratified by substituting another
object, particularly not an abstract concept, in the place
of the mother. This insistence on a particular object is
indicated by the lack of the open d^ plus m constellation
in childhood; instead, we find C vector patterns in this age.

THE CONTACT VECTOR

m

which indicates actual frustration in regard to oral grati-
fication. On the other hand, the high frequency of this
constellation in old age (between the ages of sixty and
eighty, open d with plus m is by far the most frequent pat-
tern in the C vector) reflects most probably the generalized
need to cling to practically any object in the immediate
environment, which is a characteristic trait of old people.

Open d with Minus m

In contrast to the open d, plus m configuration, which
implied socially positive and optimistic characteristics in
the main, and was the most usual C vectorial reaction in
socially well-adjusted adults, the open d, minus m reaction
is given by those subjects who have the most negativistic
attitude toward society and are socially least adjusted. If
encountered in adults, this constellation in the C vector
indicates social maladjustment, no matter what the con-
figuration of the rest of the test profile is. The lack of
concern in respect to choosing specific objects (open d)
coupled with the denial of the need to lean on others
(minus mj, results in a socially desperate attitude of indif-
ference. This negativistic social attitude occurs usually in
individuals who originally felt frustrated in regard to grati-
fying oral needs in their childhood and have also reached
the conclusion in later life tliat the objects available for
libido-cathexis will not furnish the gratification needed to
make up for what they have missed in childhood. Thus,
subjects with open d, minus m are essentially disappointed
in life, and this disappointment is easily turned into aggres-
sion against the frustrating environment. The transition
from disappointment into manifest aggressive behavior is
usually brought about by way of the mechanism of uncon-
scious projection (minus p), which enables the person to
attach the blame for his basic frustration on specific persons
or objects in his environment. The high frequency of this

l6o SZONDI TEST

constellation in the C vector among criminals is most prob-
ably due to the sequence of mechanisms outlined above.
Open d and minus m in these cases appears in conjunction
with plus open or plus s, open or minus and minus p.

The other pathologic group for which this pattern in the
C vector is characteristic, are the hypomanic patients, or
cases of incipient mania. It is assumed that the indiscrimi-
nate grabbing attitude of these patients is also based on
strong frustration of the oral need to cling to and enjoy
the objects of the world. Again, the minus m indicates
that the subject has given up more constructive and opti-
mistic attempts in regard to satisfying this need; instead,
he is trying to derive some sort of pleasure from any object
he comes across (open d)^ many times in an asocial or anti-
social way (minus m ), However, these indiscriminate
attempts do not furnish any real satisfaction, which accounts
for the quick discarding of objects and the general instability
and unpredictability of the behavior of these subjects.

Besides these two pathologic groups, open d, minus m is
frequent in any form of psychosis in the stage at which
the patients are ready to be institutionalized because their
behavior has become antisocial.

Comparing the pathologic significance of this C vector
pattern with its opposite, the open d^ plus m, it is obvious
that while the open dj plus m could be generally interpreted
as a sign against any serious form of pathology — anxiety
neurosis representing the worst cases in which it was found —
the present constellation is one of those essential determi-
nants in the test which give an unfavorable interpretation
to the whole profile, no matter what the reaction in the
other six factors are. With this constellation, neurotic
symptoms are much less frequent than are psychotic symp-
toms or antisocial behavior.

The distribution curve throughout the various age groups
shows trends exactly opposite to the previous configuration

THE CONTACT VECTOR

l6l

in this vector. Open dj minus m is most frequent in chil-
dren, and shows rapid decrease in frequency with increasing
age. In adults, it occurs less than half as frequently as it
does in children (about lo per cent in adults) and is most
unusual in old age. As in the case of the plus, minus m
configuration, the interpretation of the open d^ minus if
encountered in children, is not nearly so unfavorable as it
is if encountered in adults. The underlying psychodynamics
for the relatively high frequency of both of these C vectorial
configurations in childhood are most probably also prac-
tically identical. Both reflect the children’s actual frustra-
tion because of the necessity to give up their most intimate
attachment to their mother, and both reflect their attempts
to find substitutes for the mother figure by cathecting numer-
ous objects of the environment, without, however, being
able to *‘cling” to these new objects the way they did to
the mother. It seems that substitute satisfaction in this
area is linked to the ability to sublimate the original oral
need, and thus can not be achieved before maturity, which
coincides with the age when open d^ plus m, becomes fre-
quent. According to my experience, it is not even favorable
for later personality development to skip this stage of oral
frustration — ^as indicated by the minus m reaction in chil-
dren — or the adult personality will show too strong a need
for dependence, and too low a tolerance of unavoidable
frustrations.

The rarity of open d, minus m in old age is most probably
owing to the intensive clinging of old persons to every-
body in their immediate environment, and to their effort
to keep up contact with life. (Cf. high frequency of open d,
plus m iji this age group.)

Open d with Open m

Only the most concise characterization will be given of
this and the following two constellations in the C vector.

S20NDI TEST

l6^

since the four basic forms of reactions of the two component
factors have been discussed in detail, first as single factorial
reactions, and later in relation to the six most characteristic
configurations in the whole vector. Nevertheless, at least
a very brief separate characterization of the following two
constellations is warranted because of the distinct types of
object relationships corresponding to them.

Open dj open m is yielded by subjects for whom object-
relationship as such is not an area of concern. They can
be characterized as easy-going individuals who experience
no particular difficulty in changing from one situation to
another. Their attitude is more or less the same toward
all objects and persons with whom they come in contact;
namely, a childish curiosity concerning ways the object,
person, or situation may be most enjoyed. They are
hedonists, as a spoiled child is a hedonist in assuming that
the duty of the mother is to take care of his well-being.
Thus, the carefree attitude of these subjects hinges on the
expectation that somebody will take care of them as their
mothers did. That the d factor, as well as the is drained
is an indication that, actually, these subjects are able to
bring about such situations; otherwise tension would be
indicated in at least one of the two factors. On the other
hand, the fact that there is no tension in regard to either
the anal type or the oral type of object-relationship is in
itself and indication of a genitally immature sexual organi-
zation, since some degree of tension in at least one of these
pregenital component drives is expected following successful
establishment of genital supremacy.

Accordingly, this configuration is found frequently in cases
of neuroses in which sexual immaturity is among the obvious
symptoms. So-called anal and oral perversions appear fre-
quently in conjunction with this pattern in the C vector.

Although personality types corresponding to this con-
figuration have been characterized as “infantile” in their

THE CONTACT VECTOR

163

relationship and expectancy toward environment, it has been
found infrequently in children. This may be due to the
simple fact that the test can not be administered to children
less than approximately three and a half years old, at which
age they have outgrown the developmental stage correspond-
ing to this C vectorial pattern. This constellation occurs
with relatively highest frequency in adolescents, and with
next highest frequency in adults, being given in both groups
by those individuals who are inclined to be indiscriminate
hedonists.

Plus d with Plus-Minus m

This configuration occurs in no more than approximately
5 per cent of the general population, yet whenever it does
occur it has great diagnostic value. Subjectively, this con-
stellation is experienced as unhappiness to a greater degree
than any other constellation in the C vector. Subjects yield-
ing plus d and plus-minus m feel depressed, and are con-
scious of their conflicts in regard to their relationships to
objects in their environment. In this sense, the present
configuration corresponds psychologically to an attitude
diametrically opposite to that described in connection with
the open d, open m constellation. The plus d with plus-
minus m shows that objects of the environment are needed
and highly valued (plus d), but that they cannot be enjoyed
(plus-minus m). The fact that the plus-minus direction of
the m indicates attempts to derive enjoyment from the
environment (plus m ) concurrent to denials of the possibility
of attaining the enjoyment, accounts for the experience of
an acute and hopeless conflict which, in behavior, appears
as a depressed mood. In other words, the individual needs
anal possession of objects as well as oral adherence to them,
and feels unhappy if either of these two aspects of object-
relationship can not be materialized. On the other hand,
the plus-minus m reaction indicates that the oral clinging

SZONDI TEST

164

can not be gratified. In any other configuration in which
one of these needs represents a less salient component of
the motivational structure of the personality — either because
there is less tension or because the individual is more
resigned to unavoidable frustrations — the mood is not as
acutely depressed as it is in the pattern under discussion.

Subjects yielding plus plus-minus m are often able to
verbalize the exact nature of their problem. They feel
that they would be inclined to be greedy and hedonistic,
but are not able to satisfy these needs. They may appear
to be successful because the plus d gives them enough “anaV*
persistence to reach concrete goals, but they have too much
“oral” need to feel gratified by mere ownership of objects.
Despite their possession of many objects they feel lonesome
(minus m). On the other hand, they are “anal” enough
to drive themselves constantly in the search for new objects.

It has been implied in the general characterization that
this pattern is characteristic fox pathologic forms of depres-
sion. It also occurs frequently in certain types of hysteric
patients for whom a restless search for constantly new objects
is characteristic.

There is no specific age group for which this constellation
is characteristic. It occurs least frequently in middle-aged
adults.

Plus-Minus d with Plus-Minus m

A cursory glance at the plus-minus d^ plus-minus m pattern
might lead to the conclusion that there is more tension and
subjectively experienced conflict here than there is in plus d,
plus-minus m. This, however, is not the case. Restless
tension and moodiness are, undoubtedly, characteristic of
subjects with plus-minus d, plus-minus yet they do not
feel so acutely depressed as those individuals yielding plus dj
plus-minus m. This can be understood if one realizes
that plus minus d^ plus-minus m contains in itself the main

THE CONTACT VECTOR 165

factors of the “block of irreality”: the minus minus m.
Characteristics discussed in connection with the latter con-
figuration account for the paradoxical finding that individ-
uals who give this pattern of “double” conflict have more
ways to solution at their disposal than those who show con-
flict in only one of the two factors, in the m. The minus d,
minus m components of this double conflict make it pos-
sible for the individual to withdraw to find some satisfaction
on an abstract level of irreality in lieu of frustrating fights in
reality (plus dj plus-minus m). (For a detailed topological
representation of the personality from the point of view of
various levels of reality and irreality on which behavior can
take place, see Lewin’s Topological Psychology , op. cit.)
Thus, whether we call it sublimation or escape, these sub-
jects are able at times to avoid realistic frustrations by turn-
ing to mechanisms of depreciating realistic, conventional
scales of values and retreating into their own autistic world.
On the other hand, the plus d, plus m components of the
present configuration in the C vector, show that the same
subject at other times is eager to secure a multitude of
material objects in order to master as well as to enjoy them.

Thus, according to my experience, the ambivalence toward
reality of individuals yielding plus-minus dy plus-minus m
manifests itself more in the succession of small time units
than in the unbroken experience of hopeless conflicts, asso-
ciated with those who reflect the C vectorial configuration
in which the definite plus d shows that, in spite of actual
frustrations, the individual is consistently attached to mate-
rial reality beyond a willingness to deny its importance.

Plus-minus d, plus-minus m is generally the pattern occur-
ring least frequently among all the sixteen possible varia-
tions in the C vector. It occurs with relatively greatest
frequency in compulsion neurosis, in manic-depressive psy-
choses, and in early stages of paranoid schizophrenia. In
the first group it corresponds to the basic ambivalence under-

i66

SZONDI TEST

lying all the object-relationships o£ compulsion neurotics.
In manic-depressive psychotics, it reflects the moodiness, and
in the early stages of paranoid schizophrenia, it most prob-
ably corresponds to the tenuous contact with reality which,
in actual frustration, is given up easily in favor of an autistic
irrealism.

This pattern in the C vector is virtually never found
in children, and very rarely in puberty or adolescence. In
other words, it appears most frequently in adulthood and
old age.

Chapter X

The Sch Vector and the Stages of
Ego Development

WE HAVE delayed discussion of the Sch vector because
the constellation of its two component factors reflect the
structure of the ego which can be considered the resultant —
the elaboration on a more abstract level — of the partial
drives corresponding to the other six factors; primarily, those
contained in the S and C vectors.

A definition of the term ego as it is used generally in
psychology would be in place here to facilitate discussion
of the concept of the ego as conceived in the Szondi test.
Unfortunately, a generally accepted definition of the ego
does not exist. Widely used with more or less varying
connotation, depending on the personal views of the author
using it, the variety of meaning of the term is also evident
within the so-called strictly Freudian psychoanalytic litera-
ture. Our definition is based primarily on concepts devel-
oped by Freud, Nunberg,f and Schilder.J We will also
refer to the concept of self as developed by Jung.§

Freud, in The Ego and the Id, describes topographically
the personality as consisting of three main constituents: the
id, the ego, and the superego. Of these constituents, the id
is viewed as primary, representing the source of all instinc-

* Freud, Sigmund: The Ego and the Id. London, Hogarth Press,
1927.

f Nunberg, Herman: The Synthetic Function of the Ego. Internal.
J. Psycho-Analysis, XII, 1931-

f Schilder, Paul: Introduction to a Psychoanalytic Theory of Psy-
chiatry. Nerv. & Ment. Dis. Pub., 1927.

§C. G. Jung: Psychological Types. New York and London, Har-
court. Brace & Co., 1923.

167

i68

SZONDI TEST

tive energy, and remaining practically unaltered during the
course of the individual’s life. This means that the id can
be described as unaltered since the changes resulting from
contact with the external world are conceived of as forming
a separate organization within the psyche, the organization
called the ego. Thus, basically the ego is a derivative of
the genetically older psychic organization, the id. As a
matter of fact, the word “organization” should hardly be
applied to the id, since it is by definition disorganized,
and since it is the tendency for organization and unity which
differentiates the ego from the id.

The function of the ego is to mediate between the instinct-
ual demands of the id and the requirements of the external
reality. Topographically (visually) Freud represents the
ego as being located on the surface of the id and taking
notice of the external world through the perceptual system.
The perceptual system also notices processes originating
within the organism. By virtue of its relation to the motor
system, the ego regulates the form of discharge of instinctual
demands originating in the id. The primary striving of
the ego is to establish a coherent organization of the per-
sonality by synthesizing conflicts of various origin into a
resultant which will satisfy to some degree the original
id-demands and avoid painful clashes with the limits deter-
mined by external reality or moralistic demands of the super-
ego. There are various methods at the disposal of the ego
to reach this goal of compromise; namely, the methods of
identification or repression. We mean by identification that
the original object of the libido is assimilated by the “syn-
thetic” force inherent in the ego, so that the object which
originally had been cathected in a libidinous way is incor-
porated in the ego, and thereby becomes not only desexual-
ized but actually no longer needed as an external object.

Thus it is obvious that, through identification, drives
originating in the id are drawn within the realm of the ego.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 169

thereby becoming more rational and easier to satisfy with-
out clashing with limits set by reality or the superego. Yet
it is also obvious that, as a result of this process, the original
id-drives leave their imprints upon the structure of the
ego, the ego being formed, to a great extent, by abandoned
object-cathexes. This point should be stressed as a reminder
that the dividing line between the id and ego is, to a great
extent, arbitrary, and that these two concepts should not
be regarded as two strictly separate entities, which is often
the fallacy in superficial description of the psychoanalytic
theory of personality structure by nonpsychoanalysts. This
wariness should accompany delineation of all three con-
stituents of the personality: the id, the ego, and the super-
ego. All three are intimately related, and any separation
can serve only the purpose of facilitating discussion of a
specific aspect of the total personality.

From the point of view of the Sch vector, it is very impor-
tant to keep in mind this arbitrariness in dividing the
mental life into three constituents, since — as we shall see —
on the one hand the interpretation of the Sch vector cuts
across this division, and on the other hand the division is
still useful in characterizing the psychologic functions of
the k and p factors, respectively.

Thus, it might be more accurate to call the Sch vector
the vector of the self than to call it the ego vector, since the
selfy according to Jung’s definition, is a more inclusive con-
cept than the ego.

The ego vector indicates the dynamic strength of the
“instinctual” drives: the degree to which the urgency of
these drives reaches consciousness, or the degree to which
these drives appear in a symbolized form in consciousness
(p factor) and the way in which they are integrated in the
coherent organization of the mental life called the ego (the
integration being the function of the k factor). Separate
discussion of the two factors comprising the Sch vector is

SZONDI TEST

170

more forced and more difficult than separate discussion
of any other vector, since the function of the k and p factors
are more intimately bound together than are the functions
of the two factors of any other vector. Yet delineation is
necessary ior purposes of discussion.

Our study of the p factor will preced that of the k, since
the k factor reflects the manner in which the integrative
part of the ego responds to drive-tensions indicated by the
p factor.

The p Factor

In our study of the functions of the two factors within
the Sch vector we are aided by the topological representa-
tion of the personality. This visual representation (fig. 8)

Fig. 8. Topological Representation of the Personality
A-F are various needs of the person. K is the boundary line between
self and the environment.

is more adequate for our purposes than the visual repre-
sentation given by Freud * in The Ego and the Id. As
figure 8 indicates, we conceptualize the ego f as being formed
of a number of areas corresponding to various needs, and

* An elaborated form of Freud's diagram is given in Healy, Bronner,
and Bowers: The Structure and Meaning of Psychoanalysis, page 56.

f £go will be used always in the wider sense outlined above, includ-
ing, to a certain extent, psychic functions which according to psycho-
analysis are located in the id. Closer examination of the similarities
and differences between the functions of the p factor and those of the
Freudian id will follow later in this chapter.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT

separated from each other by functional boundaries. The
strength of the boundaries between the various need-systems
determines the degree of ease or difficulty of communica-
tion between the corresponding needs. By “communication
between need-systems,” we refer to such psychologic proc-
esses as spreading of tension, the degree to which discharging
one particular need has a concomitant releasing effect on
another need, etc.*

The circular line surrounding the need-systems represents
the boundary between the ego (personality) and the environ-
ment. The strength of this boundary determines the degree
of separateness of the ego from the outer world.

The most general psychologic interpretation of the p fac-
tor refers to a need for communication between the own
need-systems and the outer world. The function of the
p factor is to dilate the ego by fusing into the objects of
the environment. Thus, the dynamic goal of the drive
inherent in the p is to break down the wall between subject
and environment. The interpretation of the p factor is
projection in the widest sense of the concept, not in the
strictly psychoanalytic sense of the defense-mechanism of
projection, whereby we mean the unconscious process of
attributing something originating within the subject to an
outside object because the specific content is unacceptable
to the subject himself. This type of projection can be also
implied in certain positions of the p factors, but what p indi-
cates in every case is the need to project one’s own needs
on the environment, in the sense of finding appropriate
objects in connection with which one can live out the specific
need in question.

* The experimental work which furnishes more concrete, operational
definitions for these topological dynamic concepts has been done by
the psychologists of the Lewinian school. A condensed presentation
of the most important original studies can be found in Lewin's
Dynamic Theory of Personality, op, dt.

SZONDI TEST

172

This is projection in the sense we use the term when
we talk about “projective technics/' by which we mean that
the unstructured material offered in those technics makes
it possible for the subject to project his personality on the
material through manipulating it in the required way.
The basic rationale of all projective technics is that by
every action of ours we project our personality on the
specific object we are dealing with; in other words, we
continuously reveal our personality through a series of pro-
jections whether we are conscious of projection or not. In
the Szondi test, it is the p factor which indicates this tendency
of the organism for continuous self-expression through what-
ever action it performs. To express it in a grotesque form:
projective technics would not work if we had no p factor.

Now that we have discussed all the other factors of the
test with the exception of the k, we can compare the different
types of object-relationships reflected by the different factors
(k is the one factor representing the need not to have object-
relationships). The plus h has indicated a strong need for
an object for the sake of being loved tenderly by the object;
the plus s showed the need of objects for the sake of
manipulating them physically; the plus hy, in order to have
an “audience”; the plus d, for the sake of possessing and
controlling them, while the plus m shows the need of objects
for the sake of deriving pleasure from and clinging to them.
All of these various types of needs for object-relationships
are more specific than the need to cathect objects as reflected
in the p factor. This most general need to cathect objects
is a need of different order from all the previous ones
because it includes or refers to all of them. It is not a
tautology to say that the p factor corresponds to the need
to live out needs, whatever the specific content of these
may be. Thus, the p corresponds to an expansive dynamic
tendency of the organism to transgress its own boundaries
and live out its needs in connection with environmental

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 173

objects. In this sense, it widens the radius of the ego
because, by driving the person to search for adequate
objects which can be instrumental in the gratification of
the various more specific needs, the ego fuses, at least
temporarily, into those objects which were found adequate
for this purpose. The factor p always refers to communi-
cation and contact with the outside. The more specific
type of this contact has to be read from the quantitative
distribution of choices within the other factors, and from
their position. For example, a loaded plus with a
strong pj indicates that the person is driven to live out his
need to cling to others for support and to derive pleasure;
while a strong p with a plus indicates that the person is
driven to live out his need to manipulate objects aggres-
sively. Of course, the basic tendency of any need is always
in the direction of being lived out, which might give the
impression that the p factor does not really add anything
new to the interpretation based on the loadedness and posi-
tion of the other factors. This, however, is not the case.
Here we have hit a great difficulty in attempting to char-
acterize the function of the p factor without opportunity
to refer to its dynamic opposite, the k. The full meaning
of either of these two factors can be understood only in
relating their functions to each other.

The interpretation of the p factor, even if its specific
content is reflected in factors of the other three vectors, does
add something in particular to the interpretation of the
total personality just because it corresponds to a need of
a more inclusive order. It is because of its more general
and more formal character that we refer to this factor as
an ego need, in contrast to the other needs which are named
according to their specific content. In explaining the char-
acter of this ego-need with the aid of figure 8, one could
say that there is no particular inner-personal region cor-
responding to the p need, but that this is rather an overall

SZONDI TEST

174

need which can be referred only to the personality as a
whole. It is a dynamic trend in the personality, additional
to the specific dynamic trends characteristic for each single
need. It is the need corresponding to the p factor which
finally brings about object relationships. The more primary
needs, which from the psychoanalytic point of view can be
localized in the id, strive for satisfaction in a disorganized
way without ability to discriminate between more or less
adequate objects, since discrimination as a psychologic proc-
ess is not considered as one of the functions of the id. Thus,
in order to find an appropriate object to be cathected with
the instinctual drives originating in the id, the function of
the ego is also needed in order to find an appropriate love-
object. According to this theory, object-love is always the
result of the joint functioning of the id-drives and the guid-
ing of these drives towards an appropriate love-object, which
is the function of the ego. This guiding of the id-drives
towards environmental objects is the function of the p fac-
tor. Therefore, we are justified in including this factor in
the ego vector, since it corresponds to a drive more goal-
directed than are those localized within the id. Yet the
p factor reflects the strength of the id-drives, as they appear
within the ego in the form of a rather coherent and organ-
ized drive to find objects adequate to be cathected with the
id-drives. Thus, the strength of the p factor can serve to
indicate the influence of the id-drives upon behavior.

The rationale underlying interpretation of this complex
psychologic process on the basis of choice-reactions to por-
traits of paranoid patients is still to be clarified. Paranoia —
in this context — ^is considered as the prototype, or as the
pathologically exaggerated form, of that psychologic state
in which the boundary around the ego has been broken
down so that there is no more definite delineation between
subject and environment. The paranoid patient pushes his
thoughts and feelings into the outside world to the extent

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 1^5

that he perceives processes originating within himself as
having been originated in another individual, which could
be the formal description of the pathologic forms of pro-
jection found in paranoics. Ideas of reference, ideas of
persecution or delusions of grandeur, are the characteristic
symptoms of paranoid patients and all of these symptoms
have in common the tendency of dilating the ego in the
sense of fusing irrationally into an outside object. The first
symptoms of paranoia are typically disturbances in the sphere
of perception and in the thought processes in the form of
relating everything to oneself. The paranoid person con-
nects everything around him with himself: he thinks people
talk about him, he believes he can read the minds of others;
he views even newspapers as dealing with his own most per-
sonal problems. This pathologic need to connect oneself
with the environment explains why we are able to interpret
the general need for communication and contact with the
outside, from the subject’s reactions to stimulus material
representing paranoid patients. These characteristics of
paranoids can be considered as the manifestations at one
end, the pathologic end, of a continuum, at the beginning
of which the corresponding manifestations are the normal
need to establish contacts and to project one’s needs in
the environment by the very process of living.

Plus p

This p constellation means that the individual identifies
himself with the above described need for emotional con-
tact with the environment. It indicates a “fluid” ego, in
the sense of readily allowing the libido to “flow out” and
cathect outside objects. Subjects with plus p have always
the tendency to “fuse” with something outside themselves.
This might take the form of having the need to fall in love
with a person, with an idea, or, in some cases, with humanity
as a whole. The main characteristic is the need to trans-

SZONDI TEST

176

gress one’s own boundaries, which need often results in
personality traits one usually calls “idealistic.”

Probably the most beautiful illustration of this need for
communication is given in Schiller s ode. An die Freude,
which has been set to music by Beethoven in the last move-
ment of his Ninth Symphony:

. . Alle Menschen werden Briider
Wo dein sanfter Fliigel weilt.

Seid umschlungen, Millionen!

Diesen Kuss der ganzen Welt!

Briider, iiberm* Sternenzelt
Muss ein lieber Vater wohnen.

Wem der grosse Wurf gelungen
Eines Freundes Freund zu sein,

Wer ein holdes Weib errungen,

Mische seinen Jubel einl
ja — ^wer* auch nur eine Seele
Sein nennt auf dem Erdenrundl
Und wers nie gekonnt, der stehle
Weinend sich aus diesem Bund.”

A more adequate description of the need corresponding
to plus p could not be given. There is the expression of
the need to embrace the whole of humanity, the need to
make friends, the need to love, and to express one’s emo-
tions. (The last two lines could be referred to the psycho-
logic oppositeness between the p and k tendencies, the latter
representing the need for separateness and relinquishment of
obj ect-relationships.)

It is most probably not by chance that it occurred to me
to illustrate the needs inherent in the plus p constellation
by quoting parts of a famous poem, since the need for
artistic and creative productivity as such is mostly asso-
ciated with plus p^ especially the need for verbal, i.e., to
a certain extent conceptualized, expression. Most writers
yield plus p, as do a great number of individuals who feel
the need to write without being able really to do it. This
need for self-expression is the consequence of the “fluid”

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT

ego-structure characteristic of plus p individuals. The term
fluid is used to denote the ease with which emotional mate-
rial can reach consciousness, which implies the passing of
this material through the psychologic system preconscious,
which — ^according to psychoanalytic theory — consists of
word-images. It consists of what was earlier verbalized
material and can again be verbalized. This characteristic
of the plus p constellation, namely that emotional material
is perceived after having passed through the preconscious
in which verbal concepts have been attached to it, accounts
for the close link between plus p and the capacity for verbal
forms of sublimation. One could also say that subjects with
plus p have usually a high capacity for symbolizing their
needs, by which is meant that some aspects at least of
their emotional needs are actually perceived. This, how-
ever, does not mean that they are aware of all their needs
or of the full meaning of the particular needs. In other
words, subjects with plus p still have an unconscious; the
plus p indicates only that the urging quality of emotions
have risen to consciousness and have been conceptualized
in some way, giving no answer to the question as to what
extent the conceptualization represents the full meaning of
the need.

The basic need implied in the plus p, the need for trans-
gressing the limits of one’s own ego, can also manifest itself
in self-assertive, and sometimes actually aggressive behavior,
in which case it appears in conjunction with plus s. How-
ever, even in these cases aggression usually does not imply
physical aggression or seriously antisocial behavior; it
implies, rather, aggression within the framework of a
socially acceptable goal-setting. Primitive forms of aggres-
sion seem to be contradictory to the relatively high level
of conceptualization implied in plus p. The fact that
plus p is found infrequently in occupational groups which
do not involve working on some sort of conceptualized mate-

SZONDI TEST

178

rial, points to the same aspect of this constellation. Plus p
is most unusual in laborers (physical workers), but it is
one of the most frequent p factorial constellations among
college students.

The most important pathodiagnostic significance of this
constellation refers to paranoid individuals, not necessarily
in the form of paranoid psychosis, although plus p is
characteristic for those forms of paranoia which show ideal-
istic, religious content in the delusions. One cannot say
more about the possible pathologic implications of plus p
without being able to specify the corresponding constella-
tion of the k factor. More will be said in connection with
the various constellations in the Sch vector.

Plus p is a. characteristic reaction for adolescents and
young adults. It occurs most rarely in children of six to
nine years of age, and in adults around seventy.

Minus p

Tension in the p factor in either direction is indicative
of the need to demolish the boundaries of the individuality
and to fuse with the outer world; however, in the case of
minus py this need is not recognized as such by the person.
The more loaded the minus p is, the greater is the tension
and the urgency of the needs demanding to be acted out.
Indeed, there is acting out to a great extent with, however,
a continual “short circuit” of recognition. Subjects with
strong minus p do project their personality into the outer
world through their actions; in other words, they structure
their environment according to their own pattern of needs
without, however, being conscious that this is what they
are doing. Comparing this process with that described in
connection with plus p, one could say that in case of minus p,
the need-tensions are acted out without having first passed
through the system of preconscious, thus, without their
becoming linked to word-images. The results of the study

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 179

already quoted on various groups of artists, musicians, and
writers, can serve to illustrate these statements. While
minus p was practically nonexistent in writers, it ivas the
most characteristic reaction of painters. I think that the
difference between the creative processes involving the
manipulation of word-symbols, or that of expressing oneself
by means of visual images without necessarily being able
to verbalize the emotional content implicit in the final art
product, is what accounts for the significant difference
between the frequency of minus p within the above two
groups of creative subjects.

The frequency of minus p in the general population,
with the possible exclusion of any selective factor, is much
higher than that of plus p. According to our theory, that
would mean that most people act according to their emo-
tional needs, which is to say that we are continuously engag-
ing in unconscious projection, which statement has been
our starting point in the discussion of the p factor, and
which sounds so simple and self-evident that it really takes
some time to realize its full psychologic implication. It
is exactly this common lack of understanding of the full
psychologic implications of our own actions, the lack of
recognizing the connection between everyday activities and
the underlying, deeper emotional needs, which accounts for
the findings that minus p is by far the most frequent p fac-
torial constellation in any age group. Of course there are
certain age groups in which the difference between the fre-
quency of the minus p and that of the second most fre-
quent p constellation is smaller than in others, but in abso-
lute amount, minus p leads throughout.

Besides this most general meaning of the unconscious
projection implied in minus p, more pathologic forms of
unconscious projection, in the real sense of paranoid defense-
mechanism, also can be implied in this position of the p.
If other signs in the test-profile series point towards psy-

l8o S20NDI TEST

chosis, the minus p might mean pathologic ideas o£ refer-
ence, suspiciousness, a tendency for false interpretations, and
a tendency to blame others, and to perceive needs originating
in the self as coming from the outside. Most probably
because of these potential “extra-punitive” tendencies,
minus p is even more frequent in groups of antisocial indi-
viduals than in the population at large.

Some of the possible positive manifestations of the uncon-
scious projection inherent in this p position, have been men-
tioned in connection with artistic creativity of a nonverbal
type. Other forms of sublimation, characteristic for minus p,
can be thought-processes involving certain intuitive or mys-
tical characteristics. This type of thinking does not follow
the accepted rules of logic, but proceeds rather by sudden
intuitive insights, in which there is felt no necessity to concep-
tualize the links leading up to the final results. (If intuition,
as such, is conceptualized as an accepted element in think-
ing, then the corresponding p constellation is no longer
minus, but plus,)

Some of the psychopathologic implications of minus p
already have been mentioned. Its frequency in all forms
of psychoses is far higher than the average frequency in the
general population. This is understandable on the basis
of the “prelogical,” projective thinking of which minus p
can be an indication, and which can be found in practically
any form of psychosis; not only in paranoia. Of course,
another way to express this finding is to say that most psy-
choses represent mixed forms of various elements, and in
institutionalized cases there are usually paranoid traits, no
matter what the official diagnosis may be. This statement
is true particularly for cases of psychotic depression in which
paranoid elements are most well-known. The high fre-
quency of minus p in antisocial individuals has also been
mentioned. It should be added, however, that in those

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT l8l

cases, minus p is associated with minus and mostly plus
or plus h and open s. Thus, on the basis of our theory we
are led to consider antisocial activity in these cases as the
consequence of a process of projection, most probably in
the form of attributing the blame for one’s own frustration
to specific objects of the environment, which objects can
be “justly” punished as the source of disappointment. The
whole question of objective or distorted social perception
could be related to the function of the minus p. Examina-
tion of this topic is beyond the scope of this book: it is
mentioned here because of its implications for research in
experimental social psychology.

It is worthwhile to consider briefly the two groups in
which minus p occurs least frequently — in which its fre-
quency falls far below that found in any age group of the
unselected population. These groups are represented by
compulsion neurotics and hypochondriacs. Why minus p
should be found rarely in these patients can be understood
when we remember that in these two forms of neuroses
there occurs the least displacement of one’s own needs and
conflicts to the outside. The symptom formations of both
compulsive neurosis and hypochondria are carried out for
the most part in connection with the self; i.e., the forma-
tions take place within the own personality without neces-
sarily involving outsiders. This symptom formation is
related to the function of the minus k rather than of the
minus p which always indicates the subject’s dynamic tend-
ency to involve others in his own neurosis. Thus the neu-
roses associated with minus p are less private than those
associated with minus k, the former having always a wider
radius of effect. As we have pointed out earlier, minus p
is always, in absolute number, the most frequent p factorial
constellation in all age groups. It is, however, more fre-
quent in children and the aged than it is in adolescents
and younger adults. It is definitely least frequent in the

i8s>

SZONDI TEST

17-20 year old group, which apparently reflects the ages at
which individuals are most aware of their needs. Children
and individuals of advanced age characteristically project
their needs upon the environment without awareness of
their projection.

Plus-minus p

The plus-minus p constellation reflects an almost con-
scious conflict in regard to the need to fuse into the environ-
ment. The subject is in part aware of this need (plus p),
and in part acts it out unconsciously (minus p). The out-
come of this ambivalence depends so much on the accom-
panying position of the k factor that characterization of
the plus-minus p, independent from the k, is almost impos-
sible. Under favorable circumstances (when plus k occurs),
plus-minus p can accompany a creative, or at least a produc-
tive, personality. In this case, the ambitendency of the p can
be interpreted as showing the existing connection between
conscious and intuitive (unconscious) thought-processes,
which connection appears to be desirable in certain phases
of creative thinking.

In other instances, however, plus-minus p is indication
of subjectively experienced unhappiness, or helplessness.
This, again, is one of the instances in which empirical knowl-
edge has by far preceded theoretical understanding. It has
been found that individuals undergoing a crisis in their
relationship to their most important love object give plus-
minus p frequently. By crisis is meant such well definable
instances at which the person yielding plus-minus p feels
abandoned by the object of his love. What the relation
might be between the feeling of being abandoned and the
plus-minus p constellation is not easy to conceive, although
there obviously is a connection. It most probably accom-
panies the subjectively experienced conflict characteristic of
this constellation. It appears logical that in times of crises.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 183

when fusion into the love-object encounters difficulties in
reality, the need itself would be experienced more acutely,
which is indicated by the plus-minus constellation of the p
factor.

If fusion into an object does not cause any particular con-
flict, then the corresponding p constellation is either plus or
minus, which expresses the subject’s need to expand his own
ego. The basic meaning of the p factor makes it apparently
difficult to split one’s attitude in regard to this particular
need. One would expect that once there is any indication
of conscious acceptance of this need (plus p), there should
be no reason for an unconscious component relating to the
same need (minus p) unless the unconscious (the minus p)
component really refers to projection as a defense mechanism
whereby the subject attempts to rid himself of unacceptable
own needs by projecting them on objects of the environment.
The situation is quite different when there is no sign of the
person’s inclination to experience his needs consciously; in
other words, if there is no plus p at all. These cases may
simply imply that the person’s attention is not directed
toward the perception of stimuli originating within himself;
i.e., within his own organism. If, however, the person tends
to perceive stimulations originating from within while there
occurs unconscious projection sufiicient to produce a minus p
reaction as strong as the plus p, then the resulting feeling is
that of indecision and doubt whether stimuli coming from
within may be considered as acceptable and constructive, or
alien to the organism. (These statements will assume a
somewhat modified meaning following discussion of the cor-
responding k factorial constellations, which also can express
acceptance or nonacceptance, although on a different level.)

In the general population, plus-minus p is the least fre-
quent position of the p factor. The pathologic groups in
which plus-minus p is relatively the most frequent are com-
posed of those suffering paranoid forms of neuroses, latent

SZONDI TEST

184

homosexuals, and suicidal individuals. By paranoid forms
of neuroses, I mean those forms in which the source of the
conflict is projected into the environment, the subject suf-
fering feelings of unjust treatment. Neurotic patients who
feel abandoned or not wanted acutely enough by their love
object fall in this category. The high percentage of suicidal
patients who yield the same p constellation, can be under-
stood on the basis of the same mechanism. The relationship
between latent homosexuality and paranoid traits, which was
first discovered by Freud * explains why plus-minus p is also
frequent in this group.

The fact that plus-minus p appears least frequently among
all the four possible p constellations has already been men-
tioned. Its frequency fluctuates between approximately ten
to fourteen per cent in the various age groups, becoming
even less frequent in ages above sixty. This decrease is
due to the preponderance of minus p in old age, which in
elderly individuals indicates the lack of even partially inward-
directed perception and their lack of concern with con-
ceptualizing their own emotional needs.

Open p

The open p constellation indicates that the dynamic ten-
sion of the subject’s need to fuse his own personality into
the environment has somehow been eliminated. This means
that the subject no longer experiences the urgency of this
need, which psychologic state of relative calmness might be
due to various reasons. In this more than in any other
connection, the p can not be considered without the k factor,
since this elimination of outside object-directed need tension
is usually due not to direct discharge but to the simultaneous
function of the k factor. In these Sch configurations, in
which the p factor is drained, the lack of tension usually

* Freud, Sigmund: Psychoanalytic Notes upon an Autobiographical
Account of a Case of Paranoia. Collected Papers III.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 185

means that it has been consumed by the k factor, either
through the ego-mechanism of introjection, or through
repression. However, in these cases, the activity of the end-
result is quite far removed from the original emotional con-
tent of the p factor. Although the plus k factor aids in
bringing about the unification between subject and object,
which was the original goal of the p need, yet this unification
is reached not by fusing into the object, but by introjecting
the outside object within the own ego. In the course of
this process, much of the primary emotional content of the
original drive has been transformed into more intellectual
content; or, in psychoanalytic terms; erotic libido originating
in the id (in the test, corresponding more or less to the p
content) has been transformed into narcissistic or ego libido
(corresponding to the function of the k factor). Yet, this
* ‘neutralizing’' process originating in the ego’s (k factor’s)
wish to keep the organism possibly free from disturbing
tensions, can actually succeed in its aim, which then is indi-
cated on the test by the draining of the p factor; that is, by
open p.

At other times, open p can indicate that the tension of
the p-need has been eliminated through repression, or
through a compulsive type of symptom-formation, which
of course implies repression of the original tendency. Yet,
in “ideal” cases of this compulsive process, the symptom
itself represents the warded-off tendency, as well as the repres-
sion of the tendency; in other words, the symptom itself
always can be regarded as a compromise.^ It is due to this
compromise-quality of the symptom that even this com-
pulsive process based on repression of the id-drive can effect
a superficial calmness in the ego by ridding the id-drives
of their original tenseness — ^at least temporarily and super-
ficially — thereby establishing some sort of a pseudo calmness

* Freud, Sigmund: Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis. New
York, Liveright Publishing Corp., 1935.

i86

SZONDI TEST

within the ego. In the event that this whole process succeeds
in reaching the above briefly outlined psychodynamic goal,
the corresponding p constellation — indicating that the ten-
sion of the id-drives have been eliminated — is again the
open p.

These interpretations of the open p hold true in all cases
in which the accompanying constellation in the k factor is
not open. In other words, only when it is accompanied by
open k does open p mean elimination of emotional tension
by an actual living out of the need to fuse into an outside
object. In these cases, it does indicate that strong emo-
tional contact with the outside is a constant feature of the
personality.

The pathologic significance of open p refers first of all
to compulsion neurosis. The psychodynamic connection
between the two has been discussed above. Open p is also
relatively frequent in those forms of anxiety in which there
is a definitely structured symptom and no free-floating
anxiety; in other words, in phobic anxieties and hypochon-
driac anxiety. The significance of open p in these groups
is most probably similar to that in compulsion neurosis.

The group in which open p occurs most rarely is repre-
sented by manic psychotics, which is understandable when
one thinks of the violent object-directed symptoms of this
psychosis.

The distribution of open p is fairly even throughout the
various age groups. It is most frequent in prepuberty
(about go per cent), from which group it decreases gradually,
showing a sudden drop only in very advanced age, beyond
seventy years. This sudden decrease is concurrent to the
frequency of minus p in those of advanced age.

The h Factor

The most general interpretation of the k factor refers to
the need to maintain the separateness and the integrity of

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 187

the ego. In terms of figure 8, one can say that the k factor
functions as boundary-forces, acting in the direction against
the outgoing tendencies of the inner-personal needs, thereby
forming a barrier between the ego (or the self) and the
environment, and also aiming to keep up the separation of
the different need-systems within the individual. In this
sense, the k factor aims at maintaining the rigidity of the
ego by keeping the needs within the personality rather than
by permitting them to flow out and cathect outside objects.
At this point in our discussion it becomes obvious why we
can call the k and the p factors opposites in the dynamic
sense of the term, since the direction of their effectiveness
is opposite; the p factor attempting to break down the
boundaries to let the libido flow out freely in order to find
objects adequate for cathexis, the k factor making rigid the
boundaries to confine the libido. The p shows the person's
need to fuse into his environment, while the k factor shows
the extent and process by which the individual avoids emo-
tional bonds with the world.

This process of avoidance of emotional bonds leads us
directly into the explanation why pictures of catatonic
schizophrenic patients can be used to “measure" the sub-
ject's ego on this dimension of rigidity and emotional detach-
ment. In the context of this test, we think of catatonic
patients as epitomizing rigidity of personality, in the sense
of having the minimum of fluid emotional contact between
libidinal energy and the environment. The well-known
catatonic symptoms, apathy, mutism, diminution of all activi-
ties, lack of reaction to painful stimuli, verbal expression of
emotions — sometimes even violent emotions — ^without corre-
sponding feeling, and the generally exaggerated tendency for
seclusion and lack of contact with persons of the environ-
ment, could be formally (or topologically) characterized as
reflecting the exaggerated rigidity of the functional barrier
surrounding the personality and also the rigidity of the inner
structure of the personality.

i88

SZONDI TEST

Of course the same tendency which aims to keep up the
separateness and the structure of the ego, is part of every-
body’s personality. One could not conceive of human char-
acter in general, without the existence of this need to
differentiate between person and environment. Again, it
should be remembered that the lack of choices in a certain
factor does not mean a corresponding complete lack of ten-
sion in the respective need. Tension, or lack of tension,
are relative concepts in the interpretation of the test, always
taking the distribution of all possible choices within the
eight factors as the frame of reference. Consequently, one
can not conceive of anybody having no need to keep himself
at least to some extent separate from the environment, even
when there are no choices in the k factor. However, the
difference in regard to this need between the subject who
chooses no k portraits and the person who chooses five or six
k portraits, is considerable. Yet, even the fact that a subject
chooses all six k portraits — ^when they are chosen as “likes”
as well as “dislikes” — does not indicate that the subject’s ego
is rigid to the extent of causing psychotic behavior, since
the k factor is not the only force determining rigidity of
the ego. There is always a simultaneous countertendency in
the direction of the outgoingness, represented by the p.

The psychologic interpretation of the k factor, which can
be applied in all cases — in so-called “normals” as well as in
neurotics or psychotics — is narcissism, in the Freudian sense
of the concept, or introversion in the strictly psychoanalytic
sense and not in the manner it is used superficially, with
a negative value judgment attached. (Introversion is used
in the superficial sense in the usual pencil and paper per-
sonality tests.) Thus narcissism, or introversion, in the sense
of the meaning of the k factor, is the tendency to keep within
the person as much of the total psychic energy as possible.
In other words, the “ideal” goal of narcissism is to rid the
person of all those needs which tend to connect him to out-
side objects. This narcissistic desire can be carried out

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 189

primarily through two mechanisms: (i) through introj acting
the original object of the libido, whereby the object origi-
nally outside is internalized within the own ego (so that
following a successful process of identification, the person
can love himself rather than the environmental object);
(2) through attempting to maintain narcissistic integrity of
the person by repression of needs which would bring about
the undesirable connections with the outer world. ^ It is
not, of course, due to chance that the person resorts to one
or the other narcissistic mechanism. The choice depends
on a number of factors; mainly, the general personality
structure of the person, and the more specific nature of the
need which tries to manifest itself in connection with an
appropriate outside object. Whether or not this narcissistic
intention of the k factor has succeeded in a subject can be
read in the test by the position of the p. In the discussion
of the open p constellation, it has been mentioned that in
cases in which the k has succeeded in consuming the out-
ward-directed tension of the p factor, the p is found in
“open” position.

I am aware of the fact that there is a great overlap between
the Freudian concept of ego and what has been said about
the function of the k factor. For some purposes, the p factor
may be considered — ^although not quite accurately — ^as
originating in the id, while the k factor may be considered
as originating in the ego. For example, Freud’s metaphor,
given in his work The Ego and the Id, in which he com-
pares the ego to a man on horseback, the rider holding in
check the superior strength of the horse, can also be applied
to the relationship between the k and p. Often, if the rider
does not want to be parted from the horse, he has to guide it
where it wants to go. In the same manner, Freud points
out, the ego continuously has to carry out the wishes of the
id as though they were its own.

* The connection between narcissism and repression is usually not
pointed out in this manner in psychoanalytic literature.

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190

This holding in check the dynamic tendencies implied in
the p factor is really the function of the k factor. Yet the
p represents not exactly the id, but — ^as we have said in the
general characterization of the p — the more direct deriva-
tives of the id wishes as they appear within the ego. If we
associate the word passion with the id, and the word reason
with the ego, then p is definitely the representative of pas-
sion, while k is that of reason.

Of course, all our difficulties in coordinating psychoana-
lytic concepts with specific factors and factorial constella-
tions in the Szondi test, are unavoidable since originally
these concepts are not meant to be strictly definable, even
within the framework of psychoanalytic theory. Freud
describes these concepts rather than defines them, and never
fails to mention their partial overlap within his own system.
The conceptual framework of the Szondi test was added
later, on the basis of analyzing and conceptualizing empirical
experience rather than on the basis of a preconceived system.
Consequently, a single theoretical concept ultimately is repre-
sented by more than one factor or constellation, and one
factor refers to more than one theoretical concept. Yet,
returning to our discussion of the k factor, it is helpful to
link its interpretation to the functions of Freud's concept
of the ego. The individual discussions of the four possible
k positions will doubtless help to clarify the general meaning
of the k factor.

Plus k

This constellation in the k factor reflects the most clearcut
narcissistic reaction, if we think of secondary — ^and not
primary — ^narcissism. Secondary narcissism is implied by the
subjects conscious attitude of acceptance of the need to
maintain the self-sufficient integrity of his ego. The function
of the k, as has been said, always is to reduce the outward-
directed tension implied in the p factor; however, in the
case of plus K this elimination of tension is attempted pri-

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT I9I

marily by the ego-mechanism of introjection. Introjection,
again, is not quite an unambiguous concept, demanding
some further consideration.

Identification, as Freud describes it, permits the ego to
cope with situations in which a love object has to be given
up.* Following such situations, one can often observe in
the ego a modification which can be described as a reinstate-
ment of the object within the ego. In other words, the ego,
in order to reconcile itself to the loss of the love object,
brings about changes within itself in order to become similar
to the object. The ego then may love the image of the
object within itself despite the loss of the original.

This is, then, a mechanism which leads the ego to self-
sufficiency, and makes libidinal satisfaction fairly independ-
ent of the outer world. Discussion of this process is advanced
here not as a recapitulation of Freudian ego-mechanism, but
because the process is, exactly, the function of the plus k.
The more loaded the plus k appears, the stronger is the drive
for emotional independence in the person. An individual
giving plus k does not want to become involved in emotional
relationships probably because he feels that it is unsafe to
cathect an object he can lose. Once the object is built up
within the own ego, nobody can take it away: there is no
more danger of losing it.

All this also fits in with the essence of narcissism; the tend-
ency to direct the libido back to the self instead of investing
it in outside objects. Since the investment of the libido
in outside objects is implied in the p, we are justified in
saying that the aim of the k is to rid the organism from
tension caused by the p, when p stands for the wish to have
contact with the outside. Szondi termed the function of
the p factor ego-diastole (borrowing from physiology, in
which diastole refers to the heart's dilating function), and
the function of the k factor ego-systole (systole in physiology

* Freud, S.: Mourning and Melancholia. Collected Papers, Vol. III.

SZONDI TEST

192

referring to the heart’s contracting function). Actually these
expressions are helpful only following elaboration of the
meaning of the k and p functions. Otherwise, the terms
may lead to misunderstanding, since it is questionable
whether calling introjective mechanisms ego-“contracting” is
justified. Introjection, as such, does not contract the ego;
rather it enlarges it through the process of incorporating
outside objects into the self. In another sense, of course,
introjection does impoverish the ego, exactly because it rids
the ego of dynamic, outgoing tension.

In one sense, projection (the p factor) and introjection (the
k factor) are not opposite in that they both aim at destroying
the boundary between subject and object. The difference lies
in the maimer in which the boundary is destroyed: by projec-
tion, the boundary is destroyed when the ego fuses into the
outside object; by introjection, the boundary becomes non-
existent when the outside object is taken in, to rest within
the boundary of one’s own ego. In a representation of the
most extreme results of each of these functions, the visual
symbolic representation would amount to practically identi-
cal end-situations. In both cases, of course, one would begin
with two independent entities: (1) the person within, and
(2) the outside world (fig. 9). At the end of a hypothetically
complete projection (which, of course, never exists in reality),
the boundary surrounding the person disappears since the
total personality fuses into the environment. The corre-
sponding symbolic representation would require only one
circle, representing complete fusion. A hypothetically com-
plete introjection means that the environment has been
“eaten up” by the person, so that everything which had
been outside is internalized. The corresponding symbolic
representation again would be a single circle, representing
now a total assimilation, by which the individual would
reach a perfect state of self-sufficiency. He would contain
the universe; for himself, he is the universe.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT I93

If the function of introjection is pursued theoretically to
this unrealistically extreme degree, certain cases of catatonic
schizophrenia which at first seem to oppose our original
assumption that catatonic patients may be considered to
represent the pathologic extreme of loss of contact with the
environment, are no longer contradictory. For example,
a catatonic patient described as having been in a typical
catatonic rigid position for a considerable length of time
was cited as proof against the theoretical explanation of
the k factor that the catatonic may be regarded as the proto-
type of those who close the defensive wall around their egos.
After recovery from what seemed a catatonic “stupor,” the
patient explained that the reason for his immobility was
that the forces of “good” and “evil” were having a fight
in the universe, and his least movement would have influ-
enced the outcome of this fight. The accompanying argu-
ment implied that many times a catatonic we consider rigid
because he lacks contact with the environment is actually
deeply concerned with universal happenings. This case,
I think, not only fails to contradict assumptions which in
the Szondi test refer to the nature of catatonic schizophrenia,
but it is a beautiful illustration of the result in the ego of
the most extreme introjective processes. I would interpret
this example not as proving that the patient had contact
with the universe, but as showing the psychotic distortion
of the ego after it had introjected the universe, and thereby
lost contact with outside happenings. This patient lacked
even the paranoid’s distorted interpretation of his environ-
ment; rather he experienced vague universal happenings
within the boundary of his own self (or ego), not as some-
thing happening beyond the boundary. His fear of influ-
encing the balance of forces by the least movement of his
own, clearly indicates, I think, the completely narcissistic
nature of his experience, and illustrates what we mean by
the extreme functioning of the plus which I suppose this

SZONDI TEST

194

patient would have, although unfortunately we have no
Szondi profile of him.

Another feature of the plus k is illustrated in pathologic
form in the above example; that is, the person's egocentricity,
which so many times is implied in this k constellation. The
illustration is easy to understand, since egocentricity is
almost the same as narcissism, except that the term is used
in a sense more socially negative, implying the asocial con-
sequences of narcissism in manifest behavior. However, in
certain configurations of the total test pattern, the narcissism
of plus k does not imply egocentricity in the above sense (for
example, minus h, minus 5, plus e, minus hy, plus k). In
other cases, when the rest of the profile indicates the possi-
bility of psychosis, the narcissism of plus k might reach the
degree even of psychotic autism, as in the above example of
the catatonic patient.

Character traits corresponding to plus k in so-called normal
individuals may be the following: striving for self-sufficiency;
striving to be unemotional by means of intellectualizing
emotions. Subjects with plus k are likely to have good
insight into emotional processes; they are willing to face
their own emotions. However, in the very process of facing
emotions intellectually, the individual absorbs the original
emotionality, so that emotions become more the object of
intellectual manipulations than the driving force for really
emotional actions.

Plus k offers good possibilities for certain types of sublima-
tion, mostly sublimation involving learning, logical thinking,
systematizing, and reproducing learned material. In other
words, plus k is linked with the less originally creative and
less dynamic forces of sublimation. The synthetic function
of the ego, as described by Nunberg,* can easily be linked
with the function of the plus as manifested in thinking

* Nunberg, H.: The Synthetic Function of the Ego. Internat. J.
Psycho-Analysis, XII, 1931.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 105

processes. Nunberg points out that there is a specific force
within the ego which functions as an intermediary between
the inner and the outer world, attempting to adjust opposing
elements within the personality. The functioning of this
force is needed when a certain craving appears in the organ-
ism without being gratified by the environment. In these
cases, Nunberg says, ‘‘the ego ideationally assimilates the id’s
objects; this is done by identification. Through identifica-
tion, certain instincts and objects not consonant with the
ego are not merely warded off, but united, modified, fused,
divested of their specific element of danger.” This process
of assimilating and neutralizing cravings originating in the
id, Nunberg calls the synthetic function of the ego, which
could be applied word by word to the function of the k
factor as related to the content of the p. Nunberg goes
even as far as saying that our “need for causality” which is
such a predominant feature of human thinking, is the
intellectual manifestation of the same synthetic function of
the ego. Findings of the Szondi test would certainly support
this theory, and would also bear out the connection between
this “synthetic function of the ego” and the plus k. Subjects
with plus k are definitely inclined toward this kind of
“synthetic” causal thinking, the logical derivations and
systematization of thought-processes playing an important
part in the thinking of these subjects. These systematic
thought-processes are quite different from the more intuitive
and “emotional” thinking characteristic of individuals with
a much stronger p than k factor.

Certain data of a study on musical taste and personality *
can be interpreted in the same sense, although the data do
not refer to intellectual thinking processes, but to aesthetic
judgments. The results of this study clearly show that the
preference for strictly classical music (Bach, Mozart) is asso-

* Deri, Otto: Musical Taste and Personality. Unpublished M.A.
thesis, Columbia University, 1947.

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196

ciated with a strong plus k factor, while preference for
romantic music (Wagner, Schumann) is found in subjects
whose p factor is significantly more loaded than the k. Inter-
pretation of these findings refers to the strict “logical” struc-
ture of classical music, versus the less clearly structured but
more “emotional” character of romantic music. One more
experimental finding in regard to the plus k needs mention.
A series of test profiles obtained from patients undergoing
psychoanalytic treatment, shows clearly the tendency of the
k factor to become positive in the course of the analysis.

This could be interpreted as indication that the process
of cure brings about an intellectual assimilation of emo-
tional material, which actually is what takes place in psycho-
analysis. Another meaning of the same finding may be that
plus k reflects the process whereby the patient introjects the
personality of the analyst. The two interpretations are by
no means mutually exclusive. I am rather inclined to
believe that both interpretations are simultaneously valid,
and are also dynamically related, since through identifying
himself with the analyst, the patient dares to face his own
emotional problems.

The corollary to the above findings is that plus k is rarely
found in those forms of neuroses which involve strong and
“successful” repression of emotions. It can be found in
character-neurotics who are intellectually aware of their
problems, but who, due to the rigidity of their character,
are unable or unwilling to change. Plus k is found relatively
frequently in depressive psychosis. The connection between
melancholia (depression) and the mechanism of introjection
is described in detail in Freud’s Mourning and Melancholia
(op. cit.). On the basis of experiments with depressive
patients before and after electro-shock treatments, I formu-
lated a hypothesis in the light of which symptoms of depres-
sion are considered as being the consequence of unsuccessful
attempts to repress certain emotional material. The sup-

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 107

porting data on the Szondi Test were significant changes
in the k factor from the plus towards the minus direction
after completion of shock treatment.*

Plus k is most unusual in manic psychosis.

The age distribution of plus k shows that it is most fre-
quent in young children between the ages of three and five.
The frequency of plus k in this age group is more than twice
the frequency in adults, probably because “physiologic”
autism is characteristic of young children. The works of
Piaget illustrate this autism in regard to behavior, to think-
ing, and to reasoning and use of the language. This is the
age of stubbornness, and feeling of omnipotence, when chil-
dren feel they understand and own the world. The frequency
of plus k shows a sudden drop around the age of schooling,
which might be interpreted in two ways: either as a conse-
quence of enforced drill; or as the sign of a “physiologic”
readiness to give up infantile autism. It should not be too
difficult to explore this problem experimentally by compar-
ing the profiles of six year old school children with profiles
of children of the same age who, due to some reason, have
not been sent to school. One might even get results by
comparing children’s test profiles from “progressive” schools
with profiles from old-fashioned “drill” schools.

At approximately the age of puberty, the frequency of
plus k again increases, and remains more or less constant
(approximately 12—16 per cent) until old age. Beyond the
age of seventy, plus k is found most infrequently, since at
that age repression is used much more than introjection to
eliminate emotional tension. Actually, repression is used
more than introjection in all the age groups (which, in terms
of the Szondi test means that minus k is more frequent than
plus k) except that introjection (plus k) drops suddenly in
ages beyond seventy.

* Deri, Susan: The Results of the Szondi Test on Depressive Patients
Before and After Electric Shock Treatment. Chapter in Beliak, L.,
& Abt, L., Handbook on Piojective Techniques. New York, Ronald
Press Co., in press.

SZONDI TEST

198

Minus k

The minus k also reflects the attempt to maintain the
narcissistic integrity o£ the ego. The aim, again, is to elimi-
nate the tension implied in the content of the p factor.
However, minus k is an indication that whatever was the
content of the p factor is not accepted by the critical part of
the ego and by all means by the superego. Because of the
intolerance of the ego and superego against emotional con-
tent which is implied in the tension of the p factor, the ego
can not cope with the tension by using the mechanism of
introjection. The emotional content or the object toward
which the need-tension expressed in the p factor is striving
is not permitted to be incorporated consciously into the ego,
not even after divestment from its original emotionality and
transformation into emotionally neutral intellectual interest.
The minus k indicates that the id-demand represented by
the p is neither wanted nor accepted into the ego: the ego
does not want to synthesize its content, so that under these
circumstances the only way to assure at least a relative har-
mony within the ego is to repress the forbidden impulses.
The reason that these impulses clamor for acceptance into
the ego is that the ego controls the motor system, and thereby
controls the way excitations are discharged. Repression, on
the other hand, aims exactly at the opposite; namely, to
‘‘encapsulate” the forbidden need so that it has possibly no
communication with other parts of the ego, and certainly
no access to the motor system: the main avenue for discharge
must be barred. In other words, the ego does everything
within its power to disown that particular part of the per-
sonality which corresponds to the forbidden id-demand. The
real aim would be, of course, to make the tension caused by
the id-demand nonexistent; however, without some sort of
gratification a need cannot simply be extinguished. At best,
the superego exerts pressure upon the ego to sever connec-
tions between the unwanted impulse and the rest of the ego.
This is actually the structural meaning of the unconscious

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT IQQ

dynamism of repression. The description of repression in
terms of the structure of the self helps us to realize the struc-
tural unity of the function of the k factor, whether it acts
through introjection (plus k), or repression (minus k). In
each case the k acts as an organizing power, aiming to estab-
lish a firm structure of the ego by maintaining the bound-
aries around the personality as well as the boundaries between
the innerpersonal regions within the person. Since we
assume that the content of the innerpersonal regions corre-
sponds to various needs, it is obvious that maintaining the
structure means also reducing the need-tension. Otherwise,
the increasing tensions would endanger the firmness of the
structure, because of the drive inherent in any need-tension,
which aims towards the outside in order to find the proper
object with which it can obtain gratification (this tendency
being implied in the p factor). Thus it is clear why we may
say that the ^‘organizing power” implied in the k factor aims
at maintaining the structure of the ego through reducing the
tension implied in the p. Introjection and repression are
similar functions in that they both aim at keeping the ego
“tension-free” and detached from outside objects: yet they
are opposite because introjection — ^by definition — operates
through including something into the ego which had previ-
ously been an outside object, while repression operates
through excluding something from the personality; i.e., by
isolation excluding a need which had originated within the
organism. In this sense one could refute the argument
raised recently that although, pragmatically, it has been
proved that the test is valid, any attempt to build up a more
or less unified conceptual framework to explain the validity
has failed. The question was asked: on what theoretical
basis could one accept the conclusion that repression is the
opposite of catatonic schizophrenia, which evidently follows
from the interpretation of the k factor, since the pictures
themselves represent catatonic schizophrenia? I would agree

200

SZONDI TEST

that repression can in a certain sense be considered the
opposite o£ catatonic schizophrenia, namely in the structural
sense described above. Catatonic schizophrenia seems to be
the psychologic state following such a pathologically exag-
gerated degree of introjection whereby so much of the
environment has been internalized that contact with the
environment is no longer experienced as a need. The world
is experienced within the person. All the typical catatonic
delusions, which rather could be called body-hallucinations,
could be interpreted as symptoms of pathologic introjection.
In these body-hallucinations catatonics usually complain
about experiencing strange happenings within their own
bodies, happenings such as the shrinking of certain internal
organs, the attachment of electrical machines to various parts
of their bodies, etc. All these delusions are quite dijfferent
from the classical paranoid delusions, in that in catatonics
numerous unrealistic experiences are felt as taking place
within the organism, while the paranoic delusions refer to
misinterpretation of the environment. The case of the cata-
tonic patient who experienced an abstract universal fight
within himself is a good illustration of what may happen
when the whole universe, with all its good and evil forces,
has been included within the self. In the case of neurotic
repression, however, the patient attempts to exclude parts
of himself, and would like to consider at least some of his
own needs as not belonging to him. This process then could
be considered opposite to what happens in a catatonic schizo-
phrenic. This, I think, refutes the argument, since our
theory of interpretation, in this one point, at least, reveals
no inherent inconsistency.

The character traits corresponding to minus k are again,
of course, in many respects opposite to the character traits
accompanying plus A, although the basic feature of rigidity
and the aim to keep the person calm and detached are
common to both groups of personality characteristics. The

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 201

socially positive traits which accompany the minus k refer
to the individual’s willingness to accept limitations imposed
by the environment; i.e., there is an optimum amount of
ability and willingness to repress, which facilitates satisfac-
tory adjustment to reality. The individual with minus k
is much less a law unto himself than the individual with
plus k. Minus k subjects do not dare to live out their indi-
vidualistic needs openly, nor do they have the need to face
what those needs really are. Standards and value judgments
are readily accepted from the outside, with little questioning
of their origin and validity. (It is interesting, that the typical
age of endless why's in children coincides with the preponder-
ance of the plus k.) It might be of interest here to note
that the Rorschach records of minus k subjects show a high
amount of popular answers, while plus k individuals give a
relatively high percentage of good original F responses. In
other words, the typically minus k person is willing to deny
himself the privilege of open narcissism, and strives to be
regular, to be like the others, while a plus k person strives
to be an individual, disregarding popular standards.

I have noticed, although I have made no systematic study,
that various schools of psychotherapy tend to affect different
k constellations in the patients, depending on their explicitly
or tacitly implied value-judgments in regard to social
behavior. If facing one’s own needs and accepting them
despite the “prejudices” and in many respects hypocritical
attitudes of our present culture is in hidden or open way
implied in the interpretations, then the patient is likely to
develop a plus k reaction. On the other hand, in those
schools of psychotherapy which stress adaptation to our
present social structure and the generally social aspect of
personality adjustment more than the uniqueness of every
individual’s emotional conflicts, a stabilization of the ego in
the minus k direction seems to result.

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SZONDI TEST

Except in the very youngest age group (3-5 years), minus k
is the k factorial constellation appearing most frequently in
the unselected population.

As can be expected, the psychopathologic significance of
this constellation refers more to neuroses than psychoses.
Most characteristically, it refers to those forms of neuroses
in which the defense-mechanism of repression plays the most
important role in the symptom formation. These are com-
pulsion neuroses, conversion hysteria, and anxiety hysteria.
Among psychoses, minus k is most frequent in mania, which
fits in well with the findings that plus k is highly correlated
with depression. In the pathogenesis of mania, introjection
is of minimal importance; the symptoms of manic psychosis
can be rather considered as the indication that there is no
introjection of — and no identification with — environmental
objects. The apparent contradiction between the raging
symptoms of mania and the repression implied in minus k
will have to wait for clarification until we discuss the various
Sch configurations.

As we have said, minus k is generally the most frequent
position of the k factor. Its frequency shows a more or less
steady increase, being the least frequent in the youngest
group of children, and most frequent in the oldest age group.
According to our interpretation, this would mean that social
learning results in increasing the extent of repression; or,
one might call it, self-control.

Plus-minus k

The plus-minus k constellation in the k factor indicates
that both “organizing” mechanisms, introjection as well as
repression, are utilized simultaneously in order to keep up
the tension-free integrity of the ego. Yet, the fact that both
mechanisms are used simultaneously and to the same extent,
results more in the subjective experiencing of tension and
conflict in regard to this “need of independence” than either

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT

plus k or minus k would alone. In fact, a plus-minus k is the
typical reaction of those subjects for whom establishment
of emotional independence from the environment constitutes
a central problem. In these cases, the k, by all means, wants
to eliminate the tension caused by the p factor; however, by
trying to reach this goal, through two — in some ways —
opposing mechanisms, the result is usually that neither of the
two methods can work really successfully. In other words,
subjects in this category are conscious of wanting to eliminate
undesirable tensions from their personality; that is, the
process of elimination is not — ^in a manner of speaking —
automatic, but something they actually feel as performing.
This experience results in a feeling of uncomfortable tension
and often anxiety, even though the overt behavior of these
subjects often gives the impression of strength, self-assurance,
and goal-directedness. This is, most probably, due to the
fact that in individuals with plus-minus k, the need to be
independent, rational, and detached in emotional matters is
experienced consciously. They can even verbalize this need
rather easily.

Depending on the configuration of the rest of the test
profile, this consciously experienced drive for emotional
independence appears either in sublimated form and serves
as a driving force for intellectual achievements, or it can
result in a “cold,” rational personality which forcefully
strives to reach goals set for itself and is not disturbed if
the goal is reached at the expense of others, since emotion-
ality or “sentimental” feelings are almost ideologically disre-
garded. (This interpretation holds only in cases in which
plus-minus k appears with open p.) Yet the subjective feel-
ing of anxiety seems to be present in both behavioral mani-
festations of the plus-minus k mechanism.

The pathologic implications of this constellation are evi-
dent from the above discussion. Plus-minus k is found with
greatest frequency in anxiety states in conjunction with com-

S20NDI TEST

204

pulsive symptoms, and in such types of antisocial individuals
whose antisocial actions do not involve physical force but
rather stealing, cheating, and being generally unfair in an
unobtrusive manner. A “workable” combination of sub-
limating plus-minus k in work, and at the same time living
it out in an antisocial way, is scientific plagiarism, which is
not uncommon with this k constellation.

It is worthwhile to mention that plus-minus k is uncom-
mon in any form of psychosis. This negative finding reflects
that plus-minus even though a conflict-constellation, still
indicates ego-strength which most of the time is incompatible
with psychoses. In this context, one could say that the
ability to bear and to keep up ambivalence in regard to
the use of two opposing ego-protective defense mechanisms
is the dynamic antithesis to psychosis, which in all cases
presupposes the lack of balance between various defense
mechanisms.

Plus-minus k is given relatively rarely by the very youngest
age group who can be tested (three to four years old), but
appears about twice as frequently in the next age group, in
the five to six year olds. This is actually the age at which
children start the more or less conscious fight for their emo-
tional independence. This tendency becomes even stronger,
and certainly more conscious, around the age of puberty,
which is also reflected in the additional increase of plus-
minus k reactions at this age. From puberty on, the fre-
quency of plus-minus k decreases, although in adolescence it
is still as frequent as it is in children between five and twelve
years old. The lowest points of the distribution curve are
reached in young adults, at which age emotional tension,
as such, appears most acceptable. In older groups, between
fifty and seventy years, plus-minus k becomes again more
frequent; or, in other words, intellectualization and repres-
sion of emotional needs increases with increasing age.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 205

Open k

Open k corresponds to the state of primary narcissism.
The original, psychoanalytic meaning of this concept refers
to the psychologic state of infants, to the period when psychic
harmony is still perfect because every impulse of the id finds
direct fulfillment in the ego, if the term ego may even be
applied to this earliest period of life. Primary narcissism
means that the infant or young child is concerned with
nothing but himself, and loves nothing but himself. This
primary narcissistic self-love is different from the self-love
of secondary narcissism, in that no outside object has ever
been loved (cathected), so that the self-love is not a substitute
for an external object, which has been loved, and from which
due to frustrations the libido has been withdrawn and the
object incorporated within the ego, which from then on
becomes a secondary love-object. In primary narcissistic
self-love, there are no such complicated dynamic processes
as cathecting outside objects, then transforming object-libido
into narcissistic libido (which is what happens in plus k).
In the period of primary narcissism, the infant loves himself
simply because objects of the environment have not yet
acquired any particular importance, since the gratification
of needs has not yet met with frustration. It is quite interest-
ing to realize how closely taking cognizance of the environ-
ment is correlated to experiencing difficulties in the
gratification of our needs: in other words, how the develop-
ment of the ego is determined by the kind and amount of
frustrations the organism meets during the course of life. In
a hypothetical case of continuous and complete gratification
of needs, the needs would never be realized as such, nor
would be subject and environment experienced as two dif-
ferent things. Under such circumstances, there would be,
of course, no ego in the sense of a coherent psychologic
system which functions as an organizing power and decides
the fate of the various id-impulses. Id-impulse and ego

2o6

SZONDI TEST

would not be differentiated; there would be nothing to
prevent the free flow of id-drives into the open, where they
could be gratified without even the necessity of search for
an outside object. In our hypothetical case, the object
needed for gratification would automatically be at the place
needed to facilitate gratification. Of course, this perfectly
paradisiacal state of affairs is hardly conceivable after the
minute of birth, and nobody really knows whether it exists
before birth. However, we may assume that it does, and
that all the needs of the embryo are automatically and
immediately satisfied, in which case the embryo ought to
give the open k reaction in the Szondi test. If we grant the
same extent of absolute lack of frustration to the young
infant, and assume that the mother’s breast is available
before he experiences hunger, so that the infant is not aware
that his body has certain realistic limitations, then we would
have to assume that this infant too gives open k, since there
would be for him no necessity — and no possibility — to intro-
ject an object already at his disposal (no need for plus A).
Further, this infant would not have to repress any need as
long as pain and frustration were never experienced (no need
for minus A). In other words, as long as need-gratifications
do not encounter difficulties in reality, one can not talk about
a boundary between the person and the environment, nor
about such functions as taking a stand, being critical, trying
to organize need-tensions. Consequently, there is no plus,
minus, or plus-minus A function.

We offer this example of the hypothetical infant without
ego-functions in order to facilitate the understanding of
the open A constellation. Although infants cannot be tested,
the ego-less state in which psychoanalytic theory assumes
them to be would correspond to the prototype of the psycho-
logic state represented in the test by open A.

Subjects with open A are actually infantile, in the sense
that they give free reign to their needs without feeling the

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 207

necessity either to neutralize the needs by introjecting the
original object of the need, or to repress them. They accept
their p impulses without much transformation, and seek to
live them out in connection with whatever objects their
needs want to cathect. In the above sense, the egos of these
subjects can be called fluid, since libido can flow out freely
into the environment. Thus, narcissism in these subjects
does not refer to narcissistic self-sufficiency or rigidity, but
to primary narcissism in the sense of love and acceptance of
themselves as they are, with all their needs and expectations
of environmental objects to facilitate without difficulty the
gratification of these needs. Open k individuals are poorly
prepared for frustrations, since there is no protective wall
around their egos. They are ready to experience their emo-
tional impulses with all their intensity, taking it for granted
that living out the impulses will meet with no obstacles.
Because of this self-understood, demanding attitude, open k
individuals also can be called autistic and egocentric, yet
one must be aware of the accurate meaning of these terms
when they are applied to open k or to plus k constellations.
In plus k, these terms indicate a much more conscious and
defying attitude, while in open k, they refer to a completely
spontaneous, “unpremeditated” attitude which is not even
experienced as an “attitude” but as the most natural and
only possible way of behaving. It is self-understood, for
them, that the function of the world is to satisfy their per-
sonal needs. They expect to gratify these needs with almost
the same ease as our hypothetical embryo and if reality does
not fulfill this expectation, it is taken as personal insult,
and can result in violent, vengeful reactions, since the ego
is not prepared for any other defense. Reasoning, or argu-
ing, with open k individuals is difficult, if not impossible,
since the very process of reasoning, and the consideration of
the opinions of others, is an introjective function. In order
that verbal content may be communicated, the listener must

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SZONDI TEST

be able, for a short time at least, to incorporate into him-
self what has been said, compare it with his own content,
and draw conclusions on the basis of that comparison. If
the person is not willing to be receptive (i.e., introjective)
for any length of time there is no possible basis for intel-
lectual arguments or explanation. This is often the case
with open k subjects. They do not want to “take in” any-
thing from the outside; what they want is to express what is
in them. That makes social contact with open k individuals
often unpleasant, unless one happens to be interested in
“taking in” what they want to express. Whether or not one
is willing to apply the term rigidity to this type of unbending
character is a matter of defining the meaning of the word
rigid when it is applied as a personality characteristic. I will
commit myself quite definitely: in the Szondi test interpreta-
tion, I reserve the term rigid for the loaded k factor; i.e.,
secondary narcissism as shown in the lack of ability to let
one’s own libido and emotionality flow toward the outside
world. According to this definition, a paranoid person is
fluid and unbending, but not rigid, because he is just too
eager to express his needs and attach his emotionality to out-
side objects. I feel it necessary to make this differentiation
explicit in discussing the open k, since the lack of precise
definition of the word rigid could give rise to misinterpreta-
tion of the k and p factors, especially because, in general
psychiatric usage, paranoids are usually characterized as
being the most “rigid” individuals.

The pathologic significance of open k refers mostly to psy-
chotic states, and not to neuroses. This is to be expected,
since open k indicates practically no defense mechanism of
the ego. If open k appears within a series after a number
of test profiles with loaded k factor, then it has very special
diagnostic value, since one can suspect the breaking down of
the ego defenses and the appearance of prepsychotic or psy-
chotic symptoms.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 20g

Open k can appear in epileptics immediately after seizure,
in catatonic schizophrenics in the excited state, or generally
after any sort of paroxysmal outbreak. In these stuporous,
or coma-like states, the ego in its organizing capacity actually
ceases to function. Open k is also rather frequently found
in paranoid patients, most probably because of the dynamic
relation described above, the paranoid patient having no
need to keep up the boundary around, nor to repress his
needs, but rather desires to “over-cathect’’ the environment
and fuse into it.

The younger the age group we are able to test, the more
probability there is to obtain open k reactions, in which case
it means the really infantile form of primary narcissism, and
indicates that practically no love object has yet been intro-
jected. From the four year olds on, the frequency of open k
decreases until we reach the age group of young adults,
between twenty and thirty years of age. In this group, the
frequency of open k is again about 20 per cent, and remains
more or less the same until we reach the very oldest sub-
jects, who are close to eighty or beyond. This seems to be
the age at which lack of ego strength, in the sense of lack of
organizing power corresponding to a loaded k factor, is most
usual. The open k in this oldest group reflects, most prob-
ably, the lack of the need to be differentiated from the
environment.

Sch Vectorial Constellations

The Sch vectorial constellations will be discussed from the
point of view of ego development. The experimental find-
ings have shown that certain Sch configurations are found
with outstanding frequency in certain age groups. Again,
as in so many other instances, the pragmatic knowledge came
first, the understanding on a theoretical basis, and the con-
ceptualization, later. As a general rule, I found that there
are eight various Sch pictures which, on the basis of their

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SZONDI TEST

frequency distribution, lend themselves logically to this
genetic systematization. These eight ego pictures comprise
the developmental stages from birth (of course constructed
theoretically on the basis of analogy) to young adults (early
twenties). From this age on, the ego-pictures become highly
individualized, and do not lend themselves to being sys-
tematized according to age until the variability of the ego-
pictures decreases again, from about sixty years on, so that
we are again able to talk about the most characteristic Sch
configurations of old age.

In our discussion of the ego-developmental stages, we will
refer to the single Sch configurations simply by referring to
the respective constellations of the k and p factors, to pre-
clude use of the elaborate letter-symbolic system which
Szondi uses in his book.* Szondi needed the more elaborate
system because he differentiates more stages in the ego-
development than we shall, and he presents the material
from viewpoints which will not be included in this book.
In using Szondi’s symbolization without including all his
material or presenting the system in his manner, one could
not justify the logic of the succession of the letter-symbols.
For this more detailed systematization of the developmental
ego-stages as well as for the corresponding quantitative data,
the reader is referred to Szondi’s book, pp. 129—207, and
to the Psychodiagnostik Table Nr. IV, in the appendix of
his book.

Stage I. Open k with minus p

Open k with minus p is the most primitive ego picture,
in that it reflects the least degree of structurization (open k)
and completely unconscious projections of the needs in
the environment (minus p). We assume theoretically that
this configuration corresponds to the completely fluid, undif-
ferentiated ego of the youngest infant. The corresponding

* Experimentelle Triebdiagnostik. Op. cit.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT S 1 1

experimental data are obtained from young children who
are known to be fixated psychologically at a very early
level of development, from deeply regressed psychotics, pri-
marily schizophrenics, and also from severe cases of general
paresis (dementia paralytica). Data were also taken from
adults over the age of seventy.

In our theoretical construct, this Sch configuration reflects
the first stage of infancy as that stage at which there is
no differentiation between ego and id because there is no
differentiation between subject and object, or between self
and environment. Without the existence of these pairs of
opposite concepts, the ego cannot be used as a frame of refer-
ence for psychologic organization, since the concept of the
ego, by definition, presupposes differentiation between the
self and the environment, between inside and outside, in that
the ego is assumed to be the intermediary between the reality
of the outer world and the wishes coming from the id. It
is exactly this lack of differentiation which is implied in
the interpretation of the open A, minus p as the first stage
of ego-development. (Again it is necessary to point out
that any such description as “complete lack of differentia-
tion*' is not meant to be taken literally, since not even a
psychotic can be completely fused into the environment,
and some remnants of the ego can always be found in any
subject who can be tested. Yet the term helps to clarify
the meaning of single ego-pictures when, for didactic pur-
poses, we conceive of them in their most extreme form.)

The minus p component corresponds to the “reservoir”
of unconscious needs, which are lived out by “immediate”
projection. By “immediate” we mean that needs are satis-
fied so promptly that the subject is not even aware of the
process through which he projected the presence of his
needs, somehow, into the environment. He has no con-
sciousness of having given a signal; the necessary object for
need-gratification and the need seem to form a completely

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SZONDI TEST

continuous and harmonious unit. For a hypothetical exam-
ple, we can refer again to the infant who feels at one with
the mother’s breast, since need-tension (hunger) is never
experienced consciously because of the immediate gratifica-
tion of the need. Consequently there is no need for the
ego (in the stricter sense of the word) to develop, since
there is nothing one must take a stand to so long as every-
thing is perfectly harmonious. In discussing the later stages
of ego-development, we will mention the degree to which
frustration is the driving force for reality-testing, and thus
for ego-development. The Sch constellation under discus-
sion now really should be termed the “pre-ego stage” and,
with reference to its place in ego-development, logically
should be given the rank number o rather than /. Yet we
are used to referring to this constellation as the first stage and
designate it as the “adualislic” stage of the ego, which in
fact means that there is no ego in the usual psychoanalytic
sense of the concept.

The term adualistiCy or lack of dualism between subject
and object, has been borrowed from Piaget * who uses the
term to characterize the primitive state of undifferentiation
between the child and the rest of the world. This is the
stage at which the child “thinks” that the whole world feels
as he does. Pain is experienced not as something personal,
but as something experienced everywhere: the rest of the
world “hurts” too. He does not know the realistic limits
of his body; for example, there is no difference between his
relationship to his own toe and his relationship to his crib.
Even though this primitive, real confusion disappears rather
early in life — the differentiation being prompted by frustra-
tions — ^much of this primitive animistic thinking can be
observed in very young children later, as it can be observed
in primitives of our age, and in certain psychotics. Some-
times this mystical animistic thinking can even be traced

* Piaget, Jean: The Childs Conception of the World. Op. cit.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 213

in processes of artistic creativity. In strictly scientific think-
ing, such animistic features of thought supposedly play no
part, although there are some indications that they do enter
into the process of finding genuinely new insight into a
problem, more than is “officially” admitted. This genu-
inely new insight refers to those phases in thinking which
are unconscious — insights which occur suddenly and cannot
be derived logically. These are occasions on which one
just “feels” something is true. These “mystical” feelings
are typically functions of the open k, minus p constellation,
and are brought about by means of unconscious projection.
Logical explanations for these minus p intuitive insights can
occur later.

Individuals with open A, minus p — ^when they show no
symptoms of pathology — ^are extremely sensitive in their
reactions even to slightest environmental cues. They lack,
however, ability to verbalize the whole process. These
are the people who are guided by their emotions, the emo-
tions being turned into action directly, without first passing
through the system of the preconscious, which would facili-
tate the person’s conscious recognition of his emotions, and
help him understand why he acts as he does. In other
words, open minus p corresponds to the purest form of
projection, the term, again, being used in the broader sense
we have described in interpreting the p factor.

On the basis of our discussion of the ego-mechanism of
open kj minus p^ it is clear that these subjects can be
described as autistic, in the sense of the “autism” as discussed
in connection with the open k constellation. Although they
react sensitively to subtle outward signals of the unconscious
of other individuals, nevertheless, because of their lack of
conscious insight and unwillingness for verbal conceptuali-
zation, they cannot readily be influenced by means of speech.
They act on the basis of “intuitive feelings” and show little
interest in rational reasoning.

SZONDI TEST

^14

The Rorschach records of subjects with this Sch configura-
tion show extremely high numbers of FM (animal move-
ment) responses. A comparative study from the point of
view of types of movements seen of Rorschach records of
subjects yielding open k, minus p, and plus k, plus p reac-
tions, has been done by this writer.* The high frequency
of FM’s in subjects with open k, minus p is understandable
from what has been said about this ego picture, and from
what Klopfer says about the significance of FM. . . they
(the FM*s) represent the influence of the most instinctive
layers within the personality, a hypothesis which would
explain why children frequently see animals in action
although they seldom see human action in their responses
to the cards. . . . Invariably, where there is reason from
other sources to assume that a subject is emotionally infan-
tile, living on a level of instinctive prompting below his
chronological and mental age, the Rorschach record of this
subject shows a predominance of FM over M.'* f

The above description of the meaning of FM could hold,
word for word, for the interpretation of open k, minus p.
However, in the Szondi Test — ^and also in the Rorschach
test — there are certain configurations in the total test pat-
tern which indicate that this influence of the unconscious
instinctive promptings can result in some forms of highly
sublimated activity. It has been mentioned already that
this configuration is not rare in creative artists, and even
in some highly gifted musical composers. It is practically
never found in writers, except in those preoccupied with
mystical philosophy and mythology. Generally, however,
this ego-picture is found much more frequently in subjects
whose work does not involve any form of artistic or intel-
lectual sublimation, but whose occupation is strictly on the
level of physical activity.

* Unpublished paper read at the April, 1947, meeting of the New
York section of the Rorschach Institute.

f Klopfer and Kelley: The Rorschach Technique, op. cit., p. 278.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 215

The pathologic significance of this Sch configuration is
great. It is found in cases of deteriorated schizophrenics,
in dementia paralytica and in deteriorated epileptics. For
all these groups the breaking down of the ego-functions is
characteristic.

Open minus p is most frequent in the oldest age group,
those persons of approximately eighty years. It also can
be found with relative frequency, in young children who
are emotionally, and sometimes even mentally, retarded.
This primitive ego-picture is least frequent in adolescents
and young adults, who seem to be representative of the age
groups in which people are most consciously concerned with
facing their own needs and strengthening their egos.

Stage II. Plus k with minus p

The plus k, minus p is the most characteristic Sch picture
of the youngest group of children who can be tested, those
at approximately the age of three. Theoretically, we assume
that this configuration arises much earlier, in late infancy,
when due to unavoidable frustrations, the child is forced
to realize that he and the world are two things not con-
tinuously connected. This realization must first occur when
an instinctive craving of the infant is not immediately grati-
fied by the environment, so that a need-tension arises which
makes the infant perceive that his need and the object which
gratifies the need are not one. Thus, due to frustration,
the child learns to differentiate between himself, from whom
the needs originate, and the environment, from which they
are gratified. The emergence of the child’s personality as
a differentiated unit is indicated by the plus k component
of this configuration, coinciding with the use of the word I
as reference to themselves. The plus k symbolizes the
boundary around the self, but more than that, it also shows
that the child is making use of the mechanism of intro-
jection. (See section above on the interpretation of plus k,

2i6

SZONDI TEST

p. 190). The primary meaning of this introjection might
refer to the infant’s hypothesized ability for hallucinatory
satisfaction, as Freud describes it.* According to Freud,
after the infant has realized that the feeding breast does
not belong to him, he is able — ^at least for a short time — to
get hallucinatory satisfaction in case of hunger, by imagining
that the feeding breast is there. If this is really so — ^which
I doubt that we can decide — ^then this hallucinatory satis-
faction could be considered to be the first instance of intro-
jection. The imagining of the existence of the breast, then,
would be a form of ego-defense whereby the ego attempts
to cope with an environmental frustration first by pro-
jecting the object needed for gratification (minus p), then
by introjecting the projected image (plus k) into the ego,
attempting thereby to keep up the fiction of the lost self-
sufficiency (the fiction that the subject and' the object of
the libido are one). Whether or not this complicated proc-
ess of '*double”-defense really takes place in the infant after
realization that the breast belongs to the mother is not of
primary importance in our discussion. The important point
is that this hypothetical example helps us to illuminate the
ego-mechanism of plus k, minus p.

The aim of this mechanism is to attempt to keep up the
omnipotence of the ego above the environment after the
child is forced to accept the fact that he is a separate entity
within the world. This stage is called the “dualistic” stage
of ego-development, the term dualistic used to focus on
the difference between this stage and the “adualistic” stage.
In this ‘‘dualistic” stage the child is aware of himself as a
separate entity, yet he attempts to avoid the limitations
which the acceptance of an outside reality would naturally
tend to impose upon him. He can avoid submitting him-
self to the limitations of reality by using the mechanism of

* Freud, Sigmund: Interpretation of Dreams. London, Allen and
Unwin, 1915.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT

unconscious projection (minus p) and that of introjection
(plus k) simultaneously. In terms of our interpretation,
this means that the ego identifies itself with the uncon-
sciously projected needs expressed by the minus p. The
child structures the world in terms of his unconscious needs
and then introjects the result, and actually feels that he is
the world as he has structured it. This corresponds to the
stage at which children feel able to do or to be practically
anything. This is the mechanism of the playful fantasies
which are still completely gratifying to the child. The
child in this stage actually feels that he is the king, the queen,
the elephant, the lion, or anything else he wants to imagine.
This fantastic satisfaction presupposes the knowledge and
the acceptance of the fact that there are elephants, lions, etc.,
in the outside world. However, the child's satisfaction does
not depend on the realistic presence of these outside objects:
if he wishes to have something he simply projects his wish
in the form of an image (minus p) then incorporates this
image (plus k) and thereby becomes himself the outside
object. The difference between this mechanism and the
adualistic one, in terms of the child's relationship to the
world, is this: in the ‘‘adualistic" stage, the child feels that
“the world is me, every object is somehow connected with
me, I am in every object." The corresponding animistic
way of thinking implies that the child or the primitive
person attributes to lifeless objects of the environment his
own personal characteristics, making thereby the whole
world live and feel the way he does. (Of course in this
stylized example, the term / is foreign to the person.)

The motto of the child in the dualistic stage could be
paraphrased as: am the world. I can have the char-

acteristics of any person or animal or object of the world.
I do not need all these things because I can be them myself."

The children's poems of A. A. Milne express perfectly
the psychologic state of this plus minus p period of child-

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SZONDI TEST

hood, and certainly it can not be by chance that children
in this stage enjoy these poems tremendously, since the poems
are really the “officiar* acceptance of autism. The following
lines from the poem ‘‘Busy” * is probably the best expression:

Perhaps I am a Postman. No, I think I am a Tram.

I*m feeling rather funny and I don’t know what I am —

This feeling of omnipotence is due to the ego's willing-
ness and ability to incorporate anything the child's id dictates
to project.

Besides this autism, there are other personality char-
acteristics of children around the age of three which can
be explained on the basis of this plus k, minus p mecha-
nism: that is the well-known negativism an d stubborn-
ness of children between three and five years of age. These
characteristics, manifesting themselves in endless “no's,”
can be understood as the child's reaction against accept-
ing the limitations of reality and his fight to keep the
happy state of infantile autism. It is the reaction of the
plus k against the parental or any other force coming
from the outside and intending to change the plus k into
minus k. From the psychoanalytic point of view, it is also
interesting to note that the preponderance of this Sch con-
figuration coincides with the height of the Oedipal period,
in regard to which it can refer to the child's ability to
identify with the respective parent. That is the period at
which small boys consciously identify themselves with their
fathers, wanting to be big and strong “like Daddy” and wear
“masculine” clothes, while small girls love to play that they
are mothers, and to put on mother's clothes. These games
are also the product of the children's ability to project their
wishes right into themselves, which mechanism corresponds
to the plus k with minus p constellation.

In case this 5cA-picture is given by adults, the detailed

* From Now We Are Six, by A. A. Milne, published and copyright,
1927, by E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., New York (United States and
Canada), and Methuen and Co., London.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 219

interpretation described above still holds, although, of
course, with appropriate modifications. Adults who give
this configuration in the Sch vector are nonconformists and
have the tendency to form autistic and unrealistic relation-
ships toward the world. They are likely to make and follow
their own laws of behavior which — depending on the
remainder of their personality structure — might result in
asocial as well as in socially highly valuable behavior. How-
ever, even in the latter case, subjects with plus k and minus p
are likely to be “atypical* * individuals who refuse to follow
the crowd. They might, for example, rigidly insist on acting
according to their convictions and their conscience, and
cannot be deterred from an original course of action even
when the course seems impractical and maybe even be unde-
sirable. These are the people who may be fanatics in the
good or bad sense of the word, depending on the rest of
the test profile. The fanaticism of these subjects, however,
is the fanaticism of the quiet introvert, who rigidly sticks to
his convictions without attempting to convince others to
think and act as he does. (This latter type is associated with
a plus p reaction.)

Plus ky minus p individuals are self-sufficient and are
found frequently in the so-called “professional** groups,
which shows that intellectual activity is a good solution for
persons with this ego-structure. This is also quite under-
standable, since one way to continue the childhood feeling
of omnipotence lies in maintaining the projection of need
followed by their introjection on the intellectual level. This
continuation of childhood omnipotence can result in pro-
ductive work, although the individual may not be aware
of the real source of his emotional driving forces. (This
is indicated by the presence of the purely minus p factor.)
Yet the self-sufficiency desired can well be reached through
successful intellectual sublimation and satisfaction in one’s
own work.

On the other hand, seriously antisocial individuals who

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are “professional” criminals yield this Sch configuration with
approximately twice the frequency of the unselected popu-
lation. The underlying mechanism is the same: the person
identifies himself with his unconscious projections; except
that in this group the content of the minus p, that is, the
content of the unconscious need which is lived out is quite
different from the content of the latent need in the previous
one. Plus k and minus p in this latter group is associated
with plus s and minus while in individuals who use this
autistic ego-mechanism for intellectual work, the s factor
and the h is usually minus, and the m is plus.

This Sch configuration appears in psychoses to much
greater extent than in neuroses. This must be due to the
unrealistic autism and the lack of willingness to conform,
implied in this ego-picture. Since outside forces are not
accepted, only the own unconscious needs, the necessary
predisposition for repression, which is the defense most
often used in neuroses, is absent. Plus k with minus p can
be found however, in nonconforming schizoid psychopaths.

The plus minus p configuration is also found fre-
quently in schizophrenics and in psychotic depression. The
latter finding bears out Freud’s theory on the psychodynamics
of melancholia, in that this ego-picture corresponds to the
trauma of loss of connection with the primary object of
the libido (loss of undisturbed unity with the mother) and
to the attempt to make up for this loss by introjecting the
image of the lost object. The process of mourning, which
according to Freud is the prototype for what happens in
depression in general, consists of exactly the same attempt
to introject the lost object.*

The one age group in which this is the most frequent
Sch configuration, of all the sixteen possible variations of
k and p combinations, is made up of children between three
and five years of age. Reasons have been elaborated above.

♦Freud, Sigmund: Mourning and Melancholia. Op. cit.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT ^21

The configuration is relatively rare in puberty, adolescence
and young adulthood, and becomes again somewhat more
jErequent in middle age.

Stage III. Plus-minus k with minus p

In contrast to the plus minus p ego-picture, in which
the child or adult feels omnipotent and unaffected by the
limitations of outside reality, the presence of the minus k
component in the plus-minus kj minus p ego-picture indi-
cates that the undisturbed happiness of the period of inde-
pendent autism is over. The minus part of the k factor
symbolized the influence of the environmental forces upon
the person, while the presence of the plus k with minus p
constellation, which is also part of this Sch configuration,
indicates that the autistic projectivity of the person is still
operating. Developmentally, this is the third ego-picture,
obtained in great numbers from children between the ages
of four and seven, centering on the five year olds. Of course,
to say that these Sch configurations correspond to develop-
mental stages is as arbitrary as to characterize developmental
stages in general. The overlap between the characteristics
pertaining, theoretically, to a certain age, is as great as the
overlap between the occurrence of the Sch pictures desig-
nated by rank order numbers to indicate the approxi-
mate succession of their appearance in the course of
ego-development.

Yet, on the basis of our findings, we are justified in saying
that plus-minus k, minus p follows the autistic stage of
plus ky minus p^ since the first time that it appears as one
of the four most frequent Sch configurations is in the four
year olds; and in the group of five year olds we already
find it as having doubled its frequency. The sudden
increase of this ego-picture in this age group corresponds
to the children’s increased reality testing, or in psychoana-
lytic terminology, it indicates the increasing power of the
reality principle over the pleasure principle. This means

222

SZONDI TEST

that the child has already discovered not only that he and
the environment are two diflEerent things (transition from
the adualistic to the dualistic stage) but also that the environ-
ment is something one has to adjust to, at least to some
extent, and at some times (transition from stage II td
stage III). In stage III, the child is still able to indulge
in his phantasy-plays; however they no longer have the same
substitute value for reality as they did in the previous stage.
The mechanism of projecting any phantastic wish onto
oneself (plus k, minus p) no longer works, or if it does, the
child is much more aware than previously that “this is just
pretend, and not really real.*' Anybody who has experience
in playing with children about the age of five, or even
somewhat younger, knows how consciously they verbalize
the difference between what is make-believe and what is
real. It almost seems as if they would educate themselves
for testing reality. Whether this change in their relation-
ship to themselves and to the world has been brought about
by having been subjected to parental and other environ-
mental “powers/* or whether the change is based more on
some sort of an indigenous “law” of development, can not
be determined; at least not on the basis of our test data.
The fact is that their behavior as well as their test profiles
shows that something drastic is happening at this age in
regard to their relationship to reality. The ambivalence
in regard to whether they should still attempt to free them-
selves from the limitations of the realistic world, or give in
and adjust to the limitations as unavoidable, is reflected in
the plus-minus position of the k factor. On the other hand,
the fact that they are still living out their needs in actions
without being aware of what these needs really are, is shown
by the minus position of the p factor. The outcome of
this ambivalence between autistic projection and realistic
adjustment manifests itself on the behavior level in restless-
ness. Children in this “in-between** stage of Ego-develop-

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 223

ment are extremely active and restless physically; they are
constantly “on the go/’ climbing, running, bicycling, etc.
We assume that the driving force for this restlessness derives
its intensity from the child’s unconscious wish to free him-
self from the restraints of reality through activity rather
than through the phantasy of the younger child. In any
age group, plus-minus minus p is the Sch reaction most
characteristic of subjects who are consciously fighting for
the freedom of their egos, who, on the one hand rebel against
external laws, and on the other hand, do not dare to ignore
these laws. Even adults who are fixated at this level of
ego-development show symptoms of restlessness at the physi-
cal as well as at the psychologic level. They like to change
their environment, enjoy occupations involving travelling,
enjoy changing their group of friends and sometimes even
their type of work or profession. People with this ego-
picture feel driven by undefinable forces and crave for
change in general. Their behavior often seems incon-
sistent not only to the onlooker, but to themselves. They
feel dissatisfied in any situation which seems to imply sta-
bility, but are unable to give rational reasons for their
dissatisfaction. On the other hand, due to their wish to
conform, they constantly drive themselves into exactly such
situations which imply submission to some sort of rules
and limitations, and from which they escape soon, only to
start the whole vicious circle again.

The pathologic implications of this Sch configuration refer
first of all to various forms of paroxysmal symptoms. Even
the relatively well-adjusted subjects in this Sch category can
best be described as paroxysmal individuals, because of their
psychomotor as well as their physical restlessness. The
pathologic manifestations of paroxysmality involve a wide
range of possible symptoms from real epileptic grand-mal
seizures to paroxysmal stuttering.

SZONDI TEST

224

In children, this inner need for paroxysmal restlessness
can manifest itself in periodic truancy, or in running away
from home. These are the usual reasons why one finds
so many children who are sent to the juvenile court giving
this particular reaction in the Sch vector. Plus-minus
minus is also frequent in certain types of antisocial adults,
namely in the unstable vagrant who could also fit in the
psychiatric classification of epileptoid psychopath (psycho-
motor epilepsy).

As has been said, this Sc/z-picture is found most frequently
in children between four and seven years of age. The fre-
quency of this ego picture in adults is about a third of that
in children, (about 4 per cent as against 12 per cent.) In
subjects beyond the age of sixty, it appears again with
increasing frequency, which Szondi believes is due to the
frequent disturbance of the vasomotor system in this age,
causing paroxysmal spasms in the blood vessels.

Stage IV. Minus k with minus p

Minus k, minus p is the ego picture of the child whose
ego has been “successfully” broken down by the overwhelm-
ing strength of the environment. The picture’s first appear-
ance as the most frequent Sch configuration, occurs at
approximately the age of schooling, and remains the leading
configuration, among the sixteen possible variations of the
Sch vector, through all the age groups. This means that
the most frequently used ego-dynamism throughout life,
in an unselected population, corresponds to that of the
“broken-in” six year old child, who, on the basis of expe-
rience, has discovered that environment is stronger than
he, and that the path of least resistance is conformity with
whatever the environment expects.

It is worthwhile to recapitulate the manner in which
changes in the Sch vector reflect this gradual process through
which the child learns to accept reality as such: I. First

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 2^5

there was the adualistic stage, (open A, minus p) which cor-
responded to the complete lack of differentiation between
person and environment; i.e., the two were experienced as
a continuous unit. II. Then came the dualistic stage (plus A,
minus p) the plus A component indicating the emergence
of the ego, the feeling of I as an entity separated from the
environment. At this stage, however, the child still felt
self-sufficient and omnipotent because, instead of depend-
ence on environmental objects recognized as such, he felt
the power of reproducing the characteristics of any of these
objects himself. III. There followed the stage of the break-
ing down of the omnipotent autism (plus-minus A, minus p),
the minus A component being the first indication of recogni-
tion of the limitations of one’s own ego in view of the realistic
forces implied in the objects and persons of the environment.
The result was a restless paroxysmal behavior, assumed to cor-
respond to the child’s unconscious wish to escape the limita-
tions (by now recognized) of his own power. This is the
intermediate stage of half-autism and half-acceptance of
reality. IV. There then appears the minus A, minus p con-
figuration, in which the lack of any plus A tendency shows that
autistic (introjective) defense mechanisms have been given up
completely. This could be called the stage of the disciplined
ego. Again it is an open question whether the willingness
to submit oneself to discipline is brought about by educa-
tion (i.e., environmental forces) or the more “natural” proc-
ess of maturation, or whether it is the result of both factors.
There is the further question: what is the proportion and
relative role of these two sets of factors? Most probably it
varies greatly from individual to individual, but by all means
it seems like a worthwhile and promising field for further
research and appears to be within the range of possibilities
for experimental investigations requiring longitudinal stud-
ies on children from various kinds of environment in regard
to types and amounts of discipline imposed. With the aid of

226

SZONDI TEST

the Szondi test, one could follow up and compare changes
in the ego pictures in the respective groups.

The age at which minus k, minus p first appears as the
most frequent Sch constellation coincides with the age at
which children’s behavior becomes quite realistic. Fantasy
play and “make-believe” are given up almost completely,
and there is also a noticeable reduction in the amount of
physical activity for the sheer pleasure of physical motion.
Children’s games at this stage become more organized
and goal-directed, and objectively measurable achievement
becomes more pronounced. This feature of their games
I believe also points to the fact that environmental stand-
ards of behavior and success have assumed greater impor-
tance. This is the period when children play games with
set rules, when many times it seems that the most important
approach to the game is to keep the rules. It almost appears
as though they want to practice and enjoy their freshly
learned ability of submitting to discipline. Children between
six and nine are also at an age at which they become increas-
ingly interested in factual knowledge and in learning to
manipulate real objects. One could say that this age group
is definitely object- and not ego-oriented. The presence of
the minus p shows that there is a continuous unconscious
projection of needs through action without, however, an
awareness of this process; i.e., these children (and adults
who yield the same Sch picture), acting according to their
latent needs, are unaware of underlying sources of motiva-
tion and would be convinced that their actions are deter-
mined purely by the objective characteristics of their
environment. This lack of insight in the underlying moti-
vational sources of action is, indeed, characteristic for the
so-called average person, which corresponds nicely with our
findings that minus p, minus k is the Sch vectorial con-
stellation appearing most frequently in all age groups from
six years on.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 227

It should be noted here that the appearance of the high
frequency of this ego-picture coincides with the develop-
mental phase at which we assume the child has gone beyond
the actuality of the Oedipal period and enters latency. This
would give us a psychoanalytic explanation why children
of this age turn their interest primarily toward manipula-
tion of concrete objects rather than entanglement in per-
sonal emotional relationships. Furthermore, conforming
with reality and accepting authority are well-known char-
acteristics of the latency period, and are implied in the
interpretation of the minus k, minus p constellation. This
concurrence of our experimental findings with findings
obtained through wholly different methods justify to a
great extent both sets of theories. The concurrency of
experimental findings in regard to the stages of ego develop-
ment on the basis of the Szondi test, the basis of psycho-
analytic investigations, and the basis of the experimental
investigations of Piaget and Charlotte Buhler furnishes an
intrinsic consistency which, if it does not validate each theory
in the strictest sense of the word, nevertheless makes the
validation most probable.

To return to our characterization of the minus k, minus p
configuration: since we have discovered that this is the most
common Sch reaction in the unselected adult population,
we must assume that the latency period is a point of fixation
strongly favored for a great number of adults. Accordingly,
a great number of adults must have psychologic character-
istics similar to those of children from six to nine years old.
I think that the generally accepted stereotype of the “aver-
age man” bears out this conclusion. Minus minus p — ^in
the clinically symptomless population — is given primarily by
those subjects who are extremely realistic, “down to earth”
individuals. These are the people for whom “a spade is
a spade”; that is, the people by whom the world is per-
ceived and accepted at face value. They are overwhelmed

228

SZONDI TEST

by concrete objects and by reality to such an extent that
there is no psychic energy left for introspection. Ego-
processes as such are not cathected; the person is occupied
with solving what to him seem to be “real” problems, and
he often considers preoccupation with one’s own needs and
psychologic welfare to be a ridiculous waste of time.

Although we are not discussing systematically the most
frequent intervectorial correlations, it should be mentioned
here that minus minus p in the Sch vector is correlated
most frequently with plus h and plus s in the S vector, a
further corroboration of the realistic attitude of these sub-
jects toward the world. The interpretation of this correla-
tion between the S and Sch vector implies also that the
sexual attitude of these subjects is realistically goal-directed
in that their first desire is to live out their sexual need-
tension with the least possible complication. For these
individuals the sex act is more important than the specificity
of the love-object. In other words, they are not willing to
put off sexual satisfaction for the sake of waiting for one
specific love-object, but they can attach their “love” with
comparative ease to persons who are easily available in their
environment.

Among the various occupational groups, this Sch con-
figuration is found most frequently among the nonintel-
lectual occupations. It is most frequent (approximately 50
per cent) in the group comprising physical laborers, less
frequent in business occupations, and is quite rare in pro-
fessions involving intellectual sublimation. Of all profes-
sional groups, it occurs with probably least frequency in
psychologists and psychiatrists. The low frequency of the
configuration in this group is to be expected since it is
comprised of professions which specialize in exactly those
problems which most subjects with minus k, minus p con-
sider no problems at all.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 829

Interestingly enough, it has been found that painters
and sculptors yield this reaction in the Sch vector rather
frequently, but musicians, practically never. I was surprised
to have obtained these results in my study, mentioned above,
of various groups of artists and musicians, although these
results can be understood when one considers that painters
and sculptors are interested in representing reality by means
of concrete, tangible material, and that the projection of
their own personalities into their product occurs for the
most part on an unconscious level. Conversations with
these subjects helped me to understand this process. The
artist (with the exception of representatives of nonobjective
art who were not included among my subjects) while he
works focuses attention consciously on the environment,
and is definitely neither introspecting nor analyzing his own
motivations for painting or representing an object in a
certain manner. The musical composer, on the other hand,
focuses his attention on internal perception, and attempts,
even consciously, to exclude perception of environmental
stimuli. In those few cases in which minus k, minus p was
obtained from scientists, the subject’s interest was also defi-
nitely focused on the objective environment, and the type
of work consisted mainly of detailed observation of concrete
objects (interest in morphology) with the least possible extent
of theorizing.

The pathologic significance of this configuration is great
if both the minus k and the minus p are loaded, and do
not have those “counterbalacing” squares in the plus direc-
tion. More than in any other pathologic group, it is found
in manic psychoses, in the phase of manic rage. It is found
with the second highest frequency in organic psychoses (gen-
eral paresis). Minus minus p is also frequent in crim-
inals, particularly in the most violent forms; first of all in
murderers. In this group the minus p is usually more heavily
loaded than the minus k factor.

SZONDI TEST

230

It is worth while to mention an apparent contradiction
in the findings that on one hand minus k, minus p is the
prototype of the disciplined and conforming ego, while its
pathologic significance relates to the most antisocial forms
of pathology, in psychoses as well as among the various
forms of criminality. The interpretation of these data
would imply that the conforming ego has achieved dis-
cipline by repressing (minus k) aggressive impulses with no
insight into either the impulse or the repression. Thus
the dynamic force of these impulses are at the outset inhib-
ited from any open or sublimated discharge (high correla-
tion with plus h and plus s) and thereby kept in latency
which — ^as we know — increases rather than releases the
dynamic urgency of the particular need which is forced into
this latent position. At the time the dynamic urgency of
the repressed need has reached a certain intensity, a sudden
and uncontrolled outbreak of the impulses heretofore
repressed takes place. For this reason, the more definitely
negative the minus k and p factors are, the greater the prob-
ability for an uncontrolled antisocial outbreak in the near
future becomes. The reason for the fact that antisocial
outbreaks — in psychotics and otherwise — in subjects with
minus k and minus p appear abruptly and are seriously vio-
lent lies in the complete lack of insight into the deeper
layers of their self in these subjects (no plus k, and no
plus p). Thus there is no way for the nonaccepted needs
to be mitigated in their appearance by a previous process
of intellectualization and transformation (lack of plus k
function). The constellation reveals that the subject has
reached no degree of the awareness of his socially danger-
ous needs which would be required for his mobilization
of the most efficient forms of repression. More awareness
would be indicated on the test even in the minus k, open p
configuration, which would correspond to the typically com-
pulsive ego-picture (the next developmental stage), indi-

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 23 1

eating that the person takes an active stand in repressing
certain needs with the help of a compulsive “substitute*'
activity, which even though in a distorted way — still satisfies
to some degree the originally repressed impulses simultane-
ously to satisfaction of the critical instances of the ego and
the superego. There are, of course, enough cases which show
that such strictly compulsive defenses can also break down
under certain circumstances, in which case there might fol-
low a breaking through of antisocial psychotic or criminal
behavior; however, due to the continuous slight discharge
of the repressed needs through the neurotic symptom itself,
such sudden appearance of antisocial behavior occurs less
frequently in the case of minus open p than it does in
minus k, minus the ego-picture discussed here. The pres-
ence of the minus p in this configuration is a memento that
the intensity of the nonaccepted needs has not been really
reduced at all; it has merely not been recognized consciously.
That is why the loadedness of the minus p in particular
determines the seriousness of the possible antisocial out-
break. Criminals who yield this Sch configuration belong
to that type of individual who for years lives the life of an
ordinary and apparently well-conforming citizen, then in a
day — to the great surprise of his community — commits a
serious crime. For examples of this type one need refer
only to the headlines of daily tabloids rather than to text-
books of psychiatry.

Similarly, the outbreak of manic rage occurs usually with-
out warning, and aims at destruction of objects in the
environment. Prior to this phase, the manic patient him-
self is, characteristically, not aware of his own latent aggres-
sion. Rather, he might have impressed those in his environ-
ment as a hyperactive but friendly person. In other words,
the manic process as such takes place between the person
and his environment, leaving the ego of the patient rela-
tively intact, while in schizophrenics (primarily in catatonics

SZONDI TEST

232

and simplex) the psychotic process takes place primarily
within the patient’s ego, destroying the structure of the ego,
rather than turning against the environment. Accordingly,
minus k, minus p is found most rarely in schizophrenics
while it is the most typical ego-constellation for the manics.

In cases of organic psychoses it refers, most probably,
to the functioning on the concrete level (Goldstein) of these
patients, and their apparent incapability for abstract behav-
ior, a fact well-known by any clinical psychologist who has
tested organic patients.

The age distribution of this ego picture has been dis-
cussed throughout this section. To recapitulate: alto-
gether it is the most frequent Sch configuration appearing
in all age groups from six years on. Its frequency is rela-
tively less in prepuberty, puberty, adolescence, and young
adulthood. From then on it increases steadily, the highest
frequency being reached in the most advanced age group
represented by the eighty year olds. The fact that this is
the most frequently used ego-dynamism in the average popu-
lation, as well as the seeming paradoxical findings that the
very same picture is also the most characteristic for violently
antisocial behavior, necessitated discussion of this stage of
ego development in relatively greater length than the pre-
vious and following sections.

Stage V. Minus k with open p

The minus kj open p constellation in the Sch vector is,
together with the minus k, minus p, the most frequent con-
stellation in children between the ages of nine and twelve,
and continues to occur quite frequently during puberty.
The obvious difiEerence of this configuration from the
minus k, minus p is the lack of the minus p. This lack
indicates that the repressive forces corresponding to the
minus k are more effective in the present Sch picture, as
revealed by the draining of tension in the p factor. The

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT

open p shows that this is one of the ego-constellations in
which the k factor “fulfilled” its function in eliminating the
subjective experiencing of a need-tension within the ego.
Unconscious projection of the unaccepted impulses has been
given up by subjects with this particular reaction in the
Sch vector. Instead, the open position in the p indicates
that some sort of discharge in connection with environ-
mental objects takes place continuously, although the minus
position of the k factor indicates at the same time that this
discharge must occur necessarily through some “substitute”
channels, since acceptance of the need is definitely declined
by the ego and the superego (neither open nor plus k reac-
tion). This Sch picture indicates that the process of counter-
cathexis had been successful, and thus the original course
of the id-impulses could be successfully deflected and redi-
rected toward “acceptable” environmental objects with con-
comitant and appropriate changes being brought about in
regard to the way in which the need is discharged.

In opening our discussion of this configuration, we would
have been justified in using the brief term compulsive
mechanism. However, the immediate use of connotative
labels often hinders the full understanding or “re-thinking”
of the dynamic process underlying a mechanism. Further-
more, the label often restricts meaning to strictly pathologic
processes, ignoring the fact that similar mechanisms often
take place in individuals who are clinically not compulsive
neurotics. This becomes more evident when we consider
the meaning of the minus k, open p constellation which,
although a typically “compulsive” ego-picture, is generally
the characteristic reaction of children between nine and
twelve years of age, and not, particularly, of neurotic chil-
dren. Of course, depending on definition, we would prob-
ably be justified in calling this the age of “physiologic”
compulsiveness just because the mechanism described above
is so characteristic for this age group. The behavior of

SZONDI TEST

234

children in prepuberty shows many compulsive features.
Children of this age are likely to be exacting and pedantic
in regard to details; often there is a preoccupation with
moralistic and religious problems which indicates the exces-
sive functioning of the superego, and shows that the child
is unconsciously fighting some “evil” forces within himself.
Many children in this age show an eagerness for factual
knowledge and learning about the world in general which,
by its persistence bears the characteristics of a compulsive
drive. One well-known manifestation of this “drive to
know” is the excessive amount of reading during prepuberty;
reading about practically everything: love stories as well
as books on science, or descriptions of far-away countries
and travels. The primary driving force, we believe — is the
child’s desire to “know” and to keep his mind occupied so
that no disturbing thoughts and wishes are able to enter
his consciousness. The emotional content which, at this
age, is almost ready to overwhelm the consciousness unless
the child resorts to particularly strong countercathexis, is
most probably bound up with the sudden strengthening of
the sexual impulses at this age. The conflict is due to the
discrepancy existing between the newly acquired strength
of the sexual impulses and the fact that the ego is still too
weak to assimilate these needs on a more realistic level.
This discrepancy results in the compulsive type of defense
mechanism by which the child attempts to deflect his sexual
curiosity into a general curiosity about the world. (This
mechanism can lead to hobbies like stamp or coin collect-
ing.) Yet even though this compulsive defense mechanism
might be based on the same dynamic processes as are the
symptoms of the compulsive neurotics, it cannot be called
neurotic in the clinical sense of the term since there are
very good realistic reasons why a child of this age cannot
actually give way to his rising sexual drives. Thus, resort-
ing to compulsive defense-mechanism, under these circum-

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 235

stances, can be considered an acceptable and realistic self-
defense, indicating no particular tendency for neurosis at
a later age.

A comparison between the dynamics involved in this stage
of ego-development and the previous stage (minus k,
minus p) has been made briefly in our discussion of the
previous stage. It was pointed out that minus k, minus p
implies much less awareness by the individual of those of
his needs which may be dangerous socially or otherwise.
His lesser awareness is indicated by his less energetic repres-
sion, or by the circumstance that id impulses actually have
not been evacuated from the ego (since minus p is present);
they simply have not been incorporated in the ego. In the
stage of ego-development under discussion, however, it is
just the appearance of open p^ i.e. the forceful evacuation
of the disturbing need from the ego, that demonstrates the
particular care with which critical parts of the ego attempt
to block dangerous needs from access to the motor system,
indicating that in individuals yielding minus k, open p,
the superego and whatever else corresponds to this critical
aspect of the ego, has become more aware of the dangers
implicit in id impulses. Whether this awareness is forced
on the ego or superego by the increasing strength of the id
impulses themselves, or whether it is brought about by an
increasing sensitivity toward those needs cannot be decided
with certainty on the basis of our test, although there are
indications in the other factors pointing toward the prob-
ability of one or the other dynamism underlying different
cases. A strong plus s factor, for example, would indicate
that the compulsive defense has been brought about by the
strength of the sadistic impulses; while a plus-minus s or
minus Sj minus hy^ and the minus ft, open p ego constella-
tion points more strongly toward the inherent strictness of
the superego precluding imminent danger of antisocial
outbreak, even though compulsive defense mechanism is

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236

omitted. In the latter example, in addition to compulsive
defense, the individual experiences acute feelings of guilt
(minus hy^ minus k). This constellation in the total test
profile is not found in that group of children for whom the
same Sch constellation is most characteristic. These chil-
dren are warding oiBE a more realistic danger, while in com-
pulsive adults, the danger refers mostly to aggression on
the phantasy level.

Adults who yield the minus k, open p configuration in
the Sch vector have definitely compulsive features, even
though not all of them can be classified as neurotics in
the clinical sense. Apparent psychologic adjustment in spite
of compulsive defense can be achieved with work which
serves as adequate outlet for compulsive needs (if we may
refer to a defense-mechanism as a “need”). Many occupa-
tions do serve this purpose, since compulsion refers more
to the manner in which work is done than to the kind of
work itself. Thus an individual yielding minus open p
might find satisfaction in monotonous factory work requir-
ing precision, or in devoting his interest to a detailed ques-
tion in science to the exclusion of the context of which the
detail is a subpart- These individuals are likely on a small
scale to become experimentalists who, because of their pre-
cise work, are quite capable of reaching the limited goal
they have set. They are critical toward their own work,
as well as the work of others. They are likely to be slow
and unimaginative. Scientists who are able to arrive at
original approaches to complex problems, do not yield this
Sch constellation. Sciences or professions involving rela-
tionships with human beings, and with emotional problems,
are most rarely interesting to individuals with minus k,
open p. Moreover, this constellation is rarely found in
creative artistic work, although it can be found in indi-
viduals who are interested in artistic productions from a
critical point of view.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT

Whether or not these subjects seem successful in their
work, they are inhibited in their “private” emotional life.
They are usually unable really to love because of their basic
inhibition against allowing themselves to feel emotions at
all. Since minus A is a sign of ability to conform with
standards expected, these subjects often give the impression
of living a “regular” life, exhibiting all the required con-
stituents of “normalcy,” such as family, home, job, etc.
However the individual who yields this ego configuration is
unable fully to participate in all these “normal” situations.
Rather, he assumes his role as a duty, and with emotional
detachment from everything he does. In certain cases, this
feeling of emotional detachment approaches or reaches feel-
ings of depersonalization, the basis of which is lack of identi-
fication with one’s own latent needs.

The superficial appearance of normalcy is responsible for
extreme diflSculties inherent in the problem of validating
studies on the basis of observable behavior or verbal or
written questionnaires. Many basically unhappy individuals
who are unable really to become emotionally attached to
any person or object would rate extremely high on a written
adjustment inventory, or on the basis of observation.

The most important clinical implication of this constella-
tion in the Sch vector has been, practically, the topic of the
whole general description of this ego picture. Most fre-
quently the picture is found in compulsion neurosis, in
conversion hysteria, hypochondriac anxiety (together with
minus hy) and sexual immaturity in adults (the latter being
many times the underlying cause for the first mentioned
symptoms). The reasoning in regard to the underlying
psychodynamics of why these forms of pathology should
appear particularly frequently with this ego picture is also
obvious on the basis of the previous discussion.

The age groups in which this constellation is frequent
include first of all prepuberty, but also puberty and the

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238

beginning of adolescence. From adolescence on, the fre-
quency of minus k, open p decreases gradually, and occurs
least frequently in old age. On the basis of our findings, it
appears that this mechanism of active repression is probably
too energy-consuming for old age, when the use of the
“opposite” ego mechanism, namely the open A, minus p,
shows preponderance, this latter being a much more
“natural” mechanism involving no effort on the part of the
ego to inhibit the projection of one's needs into the
environment.

Stage VI. Minus k with plus p

Roughly speaking, the minus k, plus p Sch configuration
follows the minus A, open p, although there is a great deal
of overlap between the occurrence of these two ego pictures.
The interpretation corresponding to these two constellations
is also similar in many respects. They both reflect a situa-
tion within the ego in which the critical and organizing
aspect of the ego, the A factor, fights against acceptance of
the needs represented in the p factor. Both configurations
show that the person has accepted the overwhelming power
and the limitations of the environment, and no longer
believes in his own omnipotence (minus A). Accordingly,
certain personality characteristics in individuals giving
minus A, open p, and minus A, plus p are identical; char-
acteristics such as willingness to conform with expected
social norms, and accentuated self-control. The difference,
however, is in the degree of repression of disturbing emo-
tional content: the previous picture indicating successful
repression, while the plus p in the minus k, plus p configura-
tion shows that tension of the emotional needs has become
so strong that despite repression the needs break through
to consciousness, or close to consciousness. This conflict
situation in the ego is found most frequently in late puberty
and in adolescence. It reflects the additional strengthening

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 239

of the id impulse (primarily sexual) in this age, while the
ego is still too weak to cope with these needs consciously.
To a certain extent, it corresponds to the “marginal*' char-
acter of young people of this age, in which there is experi-
enced the intensity of their growing needs for expansion
with a simultaneous inhibition of self-assertion. This is the
age at which the individual still does not dare to “live his
own life” because he is not sure of his own strength in
realizing plans, although the wish is there and is experienced
as such. The tension between internal inhibition and the
desire for self-expansion is greatest at this age in the so-called
clinically “normal” population. The behavior of subjects
in this age group exhibits certain features which could be
called compulsive, although they diflEer from the type of
“physiologically” compulsive behavior described in connec-
tion with the minus A, open p Sch constellation, and the
age group of prepuberty and early puberty. Even the com-
pulsiveness of adolescents is more expansive than that of the
younger age group. They are less “bookish” and there
is a lesser degree of displacement of the libido from its
original object. The concept of sexuality has broken
through barriers to consciousness, and children in late
puberty and early adolescence enjoy talking about it. Their
conversation, however, shows many mannerisms which
border sometimes on compulsiveness. It seems as though
they would attempt to dispel their deep-seated anxieties
through the “magic” of the words. The discrepancy between
their verbal “wordliness” and their actual awkwardness in
many real life situations is considerable. This discrepancy
refers not only to the sexual sphere; it can also be observed
often in the adolescent's attitude toward the world, and
toward life in general. Puberty and adolescence represent
the ages at which the ego is inflated with great ideas and
plans, coupled with the feeling of inability to obtain them.
In this sense, it is the phase opposite to infantile autism.

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240

tJie plus k, minus p (the visual configuration itself is
opposite) when the child is unconcerned about the exact
content of his needs but feels able to carry out anything he
might conceive of. In other words, during the elapse of
time between the second and the sixth stage of ego develop-
ment, the child makes a complete reversal in regard to his
attitude toward himself. Immediately after his ego has
emerged as an entity separate from the rest of the world
(after the adualistic stage) the child experiences his newly
acquired ego as omnipotent, and does not perceive the
limitations imposed by the environment. Slightly more than
a decade later, the situation is exactly the opposite, in that
now (during the minus k, plus p period) he is consciously
concerned xvith his own needs but feels overwhelmed and
inhibited by reality in carrying his needs into action. The
period represented by plus k, minus p, typifies '‘no conflict
in regard to one’s own potentialities,” while the period of
minus k, plus p typifies "conflict in regard to one’s own
potentialities.”

If obtained by adults, this ego picture still refers to the
same adolescent-like personality characteristics. It is given
by adults who feel that they have not lived up to their own
expectations. Their level of aspiration is always higher
than their level of achievement. The corresponding feeling
of failure is independent of the realistic value of their
achievements or of their success as judged by their environ-
ment. For individuals with minus k, plus p, the character-
istic trait is just this feeling that whatever they have achieved
is not enough. Accordingly, in their behavior they often
drive themselves to extreme performances, in order to pur-
sue the ego-ideal they have set for themselves and which
they are unable to reach. The compulsive character of
such behavior is obvious. The underlying feeling of insuffi-
ciency is due to the fact that these subjects experience the
process of repression as an alien force operating within them-

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 24 1

selves, even though they would not be able to verbalize
whatever it is they repress. Yet the presence of the plus p
indicates that these subjects are sensitive in regard to their
own psychologic processes. Thus, among others, they ‘‘feel’*
that they are repressing something, and experience a lack
of balance in their ego-structure. This feeling of discomfort
within themselves often drives them spontaneously toward
seeking help in some form of psychotherapy. This is many
times the beginning picture of patients who undergo psycho-
analysis. It is the ‘"typical” representation of the fight
between the superego and the representatives of the id
impulses. Accordingly, the behavior of these subjects is
usually highly social and they consciously attempt to con-
form. However, the conforming behavior of these indi-
viduals is dynamically quite different from that of subjects
with the “disciplined” ego (minus A, minus p). Subjects
with the “disciplined ego” do not experience the process of
conforming as a burden. They take it as the most natural
course of events, and do not experience their own contra-
dictory tendencies until — occasionally — these tendencies
break through in a crude form. Subjects with minus k,
plus p are aware of the continuing fight between impulses
warded off and the inner agent responsible for this process.
In this case, the subjective experiencing of conflict is acute,
but there is seldom an antisocial breaking through of the
denied tendencies. This might be due to several reasons:
it might be due to the fact that the continuous awareness of
the existing conflict acts in itself as a prevention against a
crude form of outbreak, but it might also be due to the
difference in the content of the need in the minus p, plus p
positions respectively. The fact that the p factor is able to
rise into the plus position might indicate that the correspond-
ing needs are — ^at least to some degree — ^more acceptable
socially than the needs of those adults whose p is kept con-
tinuously in the position of latency; yet even in this latent
form the ego has to fight against them (minus k).

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242

This theory is partially borne out by our clinical findings
that the latent need in the “disciplined’' ego refers mostly
to sadistic needs, (to plus s needs), while in adults who yield
minus k, plus p, the content of the p refers mostly to h
factorial needs. Latent homosexual and latent incestuous
wishes form many times the basic conflict inherent in this
Sch configuration.

The distribution of the minus k, plus p ego-picture is
fairly even among the various occupational groups. Among
various pathologic groups this Sch configuration is found
most frequently in compulsive neurotics. It is also found
frequently in psychosomatic symptoms, in disorders of a
primarily sexual nature mainly based on repression of inten-
sive but still latent homosexual tendencies. It is found also
in various types of anxiety symptoms and in stutterers.
Although characteristically a neurotic picture, it can be
found in schizophrenics; not, however, as a constant constella-
tion within a whole series of ten profiles, but as one of the
varying Sch configurations. This is particularly true of
series in which the minus k, plus p constellation immediately
follows or proceeds its opposite: the plus k, minus p
configuration.

As we have pointed out, the most characteristic age for
this Sch picture is late puberty and adolescence. Following
these ages it decreases gradually in frequency until it is one
of the rarest Sch reactions of the oldest group. The explana-
tion for this most probably hinges on the fact that this ego-
picture, because of the acute conflict situation inherent, is
too energy-consuming to be tolerated beyond a certain age.

PltLS-minus k with plus p

In our discussion of the previous Sch constellation, the
minus k, plus p, characteristic for adolescents, the presenta-
tion of the typical stages of ego development as reflected in
the succession of the Sch configurations in the various age
groups has been more or less completed. We say more or

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT ^ 4 $

less, because in psychology any developmental pattern
expressed in terms of succeeding stages is of course a some-
what arbitrary conceptualization. Yet, up to the adolescent
age group we were justified in designating the Sch configura-
tions described above with consecutive Roman numerals
since the quantitative data of frequency distributions have
shown not only that the highest points of density of those
Sch constellations lie in the respective age groups, but also
that those configurations are either the first or the second
most frequent ego picture in the respective age groups.
This could be due to the fact that up to adolescence the
variability of the ego pictures within the single age-groups
was relatively limited. In other words, the age-patterning
was more pronounced than the individual patterning. From
eighteen years on, however, the situation changes, and the
development of the ego — as reflected in the changes in the
Sch vector becomes a highly complex matter of individual
development. The result is that — with the exception of the
minus k, minus p constellation, which stands out with its
high frequency from the six to the eighty year old groups —
there are no specific Sch configurations which show particu-
larly close correlation with any single age groups. If, on the
other hand, we begin with the various ego-constellations and
observe the age groups in which the Sch configuration
appears most frequently, we are then justified in coordinat-
ing the constellation with its representative group. On this
basis we will discuss the plus-minus k, pins p constellation
as that following stage VI of ego development (minus k,
plus p).

The plus-minus A, plus p configuration reflects a complex
and highly structured ego, which is found very rarely in the
unselected population (in about three per cent) but appears
with more than twice its average frequency in the 18-22
year old group. In this age group it is approximately the
fourth most frequent ego configuration.

SZONDI TEST

^44

When we compare this stage with stage VI, we see that the
plus-minus k, plus p constellation shows that the individual
no longer feels compelled to repress all his needs; the reap-
pearance of the plus k component indicates that he is able
to identify himself — ^at least in part — ^with his needs. It
should be remembered that, although the characteristic
ages for this constellation lie between i8 and 22, this con-
stellation is not characteristic of the “average'" eighteen
to twenty-two year old individual. It presupposes a much
too complex ego organization to reflect the average reaction
of any age group. The long range maintenance of this
divided and selective attitude toward one’s own needs, par-
ticularly if these needs have already inflated the ego, necessi-
tates a well-developed and differentiated personality. This
is one of the few constellations in the test profile which has
a high correlation with intelligence above average. The
fact that late adolescence and young adulthood are the char-
acteristic ages for this complex ego mechanism must be due
to the relatively strong organizational power of the ego at
this age. Those subjects who give this particular reaction in
the Sch vector feel strong enough to accept at least part of
their needs without becoming autistic (the willingness to
conform being indicated by the minus k component). They
have an extremely strong need to organize their egos, the
plus-minus position of the k factor showing that they are
aware of this need in themselves. This organizational process
is carried out half by introjection (see the section on the
mechanism of plus k) and half by repression (minus k).
However, neither of these k factorial mechanisms of ego
organization, or the two together, succeed in eliminating
the emotional tension corresponding to the plus p component
of this constellation. The presence of the plus p indicates
that the person experiences the need to cathect objects,
which means he experiences the need to invest his libido
into environmental objects, while the plus-minus position

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 245

of the k factor indicates that simultaneously he fights for
his narcissistic independence, which means that he fights for
his emotional detachment from the environment. In other
words, there are two different types of ambivalence reflected
in this configuration: first, the ambivalence in regard to
whether to cathect outside objects or to withdraw the libido
from the environment (conflict between the plus p and the
k factors); second, the ambivalence between the two opposite
kinds of ego mechanism in order to eliminate the emotional
tension implied in the plus p (conflict between plus and
minus k mechanisms). Any individual who is able to make
use of such a complex and apparently contradictory set of
ego-dynamisms is — by definition — ^a highly differentiated
person, or he would not be able to function under the emo-
tional strain of these ambivalences. Again, it should be
remembered what a close dynamic relationship there is
between the concepts of ''conflict” and "synthesis” or "inte-
gration.” One definition of a mature personality could be
that he is able to bear the coexistence of contradictory
tendencies, without collapsing under the strain. In the
context of the Szondi test this definition holds true in regard
to the Sch vector, which reflects the person's more integrated
attitudes toward his partial needs, but not in regard to the
other factors which reflect the state of tension resulting from
the partial needs themselves. A complex organization of
the ego reflects flexibility in regard to dealing with the partial
needs, whatever their state of tension or the position of these
needs is, as indicated by the other six factors.

Accordingly, the plus-minus k, plus p configuration cor-
responds to such a flexible and conscious handling of the
partial needs that it shows that the person is — almost con-
sciously — able to decide which needs may be "let through”
in their original form, which needs should be introjected,
and which should be repressed. The presence of the minus
k shows that, despite their strong narcissism, these subjects

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246

are willing to conform with environmental standards and
expectations. The goal which these subjects set for them-
selves in regard to their own ego is so high and complicated
that it necessarily results in subjectively experienced tension
and anxiety. The source of anxiety is most probably the
feeling that something might go wrong in the course of this
complicated mechanism: something they intended to repress
might break through to the motor system and thus appear in
open behavior; or, the outwardly-directed libido of the p
factor might gain the upper hand and thus destroy the
narcissistic integrity of the personality. A person with plus-
minus k, plus p is conscious, or fairly conscious, of all these
possible dangers, due to the functioning of the plus k, plus p,
both of them indicating that the awareness of his own needs
and the tendency for introspection is great. The ego proc-
esses as such are highly cathected in these subjects.

The breaking through of the repressed impulses is actually
quite probable in these subjects, since the plus p indicates
that the isolation of the unwanted needs is not complete in
that the plus p factor acts in the direction of breaking down
the walls surrounding the innerpersonal regions (correspond-
ing to needs), thus facilitating their access to the motor sys-
tem. Yet even in case of unsuccessful repression these sub-
jects do not exhibit antisocial behavior. This is even more
true of subjects yielding this Sch configuration than it was
in the case of minus k, plus p. Again, as in the case of the
previous Sch configuration, we can hypothesize two reasons
for the lack of antisocial behavior in this group of subjects.
A sudden antisocial outbreak might be prevented either by
the continuous functioning of the plus p and plus k (which
means the original intensity of the id-impulses might be
mitigated by the individual’s continuous awareness of those
needs (plus p) and the integrative process of the ego ( — plus
k) or the needs themselves might not be primarily antisocial.
The fact that this Sch configuration usually is associated

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 247

with either minus h or minus s, or both minus h and minus
s in the S vector and with plus m in the C vector, would
support the second hypothesis.

Individuals giving this reaction in the Sch vector are
usually highly social and well-sublimating. It is most rarely
found in the lower occupational levels. Most of the time
it is given by ‘‘intellectuals” who are productive, but who
feel “driven” to work by their subjectively experienced
anxious tension. They attempt to overcome their internal
panic by work, and because of their strong organizational
powers they are able to hide their anxiety from the outside
observer. However, due to their introspective ability they
are well aware of their problems, and thus often go volun-
tarily for psychoanalytic help. The same ability for dissect-
ing emotions intellectually leads them often to professions
dealing with the emotional — and psychological — growth
problems of others. Accordingly, this ego picture is found
frequently in psychiatrists, psychologists, psychiatric social
workers, teachers, and educators in various fields.

Usually, if this is a stable Sch reaction within a series of
profiles, there are no obvious open symptoms which are par-
ticularly characteristic for these subjects. However, it is a
typical picture for subjectively experienced anxiety states,
without apparent symptoms. Due to the narcissistic surface
barrier (“character armor,” according to Reich*) which these
subjects are able to utilize in order to camouflage their under-
lying anxiety, they could be rather diagnosed as character-
neurosis. Despite, or perhaps because of, their good intel-
lectual insight into their own problems, their analysis is
usually of long duration.

It is hard work to restructure the ego of such highly
organized and realistically rather well-functioning individu-
als, for whom analysis gives relatively little heuristic insights,

* Reich, Wilhelm: Character Analysis. Orgone Institute Press, New
York, 1945.

SZONDI TEST

248

and who have long-developed subtle mechanisms at their
disposal to avoid too strong emotional involvement in any
human relationship. However, the presence of the plus p
factor is still a good sign that in the long run a transference
relationship can be established.

It has been mentioned at the beginning of this section
that by far the most frequent age for this complex ego
picture occurs at the close of the teens and the beginning
of the twenties. These years appear to represent the age at
which there is most interest in the own ego functions in
these individuals who become interested in their own ego at
all. It is rare to find this Sch configuration in middle-aged
subjects, and is practically nonexistent in ages beyond sixty.

Plus k with plus p

The plus k, plus p is another complex and highly differen-
tiated ego picture which occurs rarely in the population at
large, (in somewhat less than 3 per cent) but is found with
almost three times its average frequency in the age group
between twenty and thirty. Thus we can consider it as
following the previously discussed Sch configuration, the
plus-minus with plus p^ with which the present configur-
ation has many characteristics in common.

The disappearance of the minus k component of the k
factor shows that these subjects identify themselves more
completely — if not quite completely — ^with their emotional
needs* and do not feel the necessity for conforming with
standards imposed from the outside (lack of minus k
component).

This picture reflects an extremely tense situation within
the ego because the intensity of the outwardly-directed object
libido is as strong as the person’s narcissistic need to introject
the objects of the p factorial ‘libido,” achieving thereby the

* The expression “emotional need” is used because we also refer
to the k factorial striving for unemotionality and narcissistic independ-
ence as corresponding to a “need.”

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 249

autistic self-sufficiency of the personality. The plus posi-
tion of the p factor shows that the person is aware of his
need-tension, while the plus position of the k factor shows
that the organizing aspect of the ego, completely identifies
(consciously or unconsciously) itself with these needs. Identi-
fication — as indicated by the plus k — ^means that the person
continuously attempts to face and understand his needs
intellectually, hoping to absorb thereby the emotionally
urging character of these needs. In other words, there is a
continuous attempt to transform the object-libido into
narcissistic-libido; however, the presence of the plus p indi-
cates that this goal has never been reached.

One could call this ego “over-worked"’ because of the
unconditional attitude of wanting to solve all of one’s
psychologic problems on the conscious level. Not only are
the emotional problems of these subjects cathected, but one
could say they are “over-cathected,” so much of the psychic
energy is used up for introspection and attempts to under-
stand oneself. To be sure, this “attempt to understand” is
usually successful in individuals who yield plus k, plus p.
This is again an Sch configuration which usually is indicative
of above average intelligence and strong drive for intellectual
achievements. The continuous and uninhibited flowing in
of emotional needs to the preconscious and conscious, with
simultaneous striving to intellectualize these needs, gives
these subjects the feeling of acutely experiencing their own
intellectual and productive potentialities, yet they experi-
ence difficultes in translating these vague feelings of “being
able to do something” into realistic actions since the “think-
ing out” of the problems involved takes up too much psychic
energy. The difficult problems for subjects giving this Sch
constellation are centered in a paradox: on the one hand, a
lack of repression permits practically every emotional con-
tent to rise into consciousness, striving thereby to expand the
ego by fusing into the appropriate objects; on the other

SZONDI TEST

250

hand, the plus k factor tends to digest intellectually all the
emotional impulses, to conceptualize and systematize them,
and thereby to utilize the psychic energy within the ego
rather than to invest it in the environment. However, the
k factor with its systematizing and intellectualizing function
is — ^figuratively speaking — ^always “behind*' the new emo-
tional contents coming up in the plus p. Dynamically, the
subjectively experienced psychologic effect of this undecided
“fight” between two equally conscious yet opposing tenden-
cies within the ego is a feeling of “disorder” or “chaos”
within the ego with the simultaneous feeling that actually
one would be able to make order and organize oneself if
only the new emotional contents and ideas would not always
interrupt the process of systematization. However, the fact
is that so long as the person gives this particular reaction in
the Sch vector, the newly intruding emotional contents and
ideas — the proper description could be “emotional ideas”
do always interrupt the k factorial process of systematization
and organization. Yet the k factor does not give up its
attempt to intellectualize the content of the p and thereby
“liberate” the person from emotional involvement with out-
side objects. As long as the person gives this reaction in the
Sch vector, he lives under a constant state of tension and
conflict between “intellect” and “emotions,” between fusing
in an outside object or detaching himself from his environ-
ment. Characteristic of these subjects is the fact that they
are quite conscious of the exact nature of this conflict them-
selves, and not only are they able, but they actually do,
enjoy conceptualizing this conflict with all its constituent
elements. They feel extremely “potent” and productive, and
inhibited at the same time. Many times they experience
something similar to anxiety, only one cannot quite call it
that, because of its being so highly intellectualized and con-
sciously accepted that it became practically an integrated
character trait of the personality rather than a pressing

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 25 1

anxiety. The concept of real anxiety presupposes more
repression, more defense on the unconscious level, than can
be found in the present Sch configuration, in which it is
practically nonexistent. What these subjects do experience
is a conscious feeling of tension and an “anxiety” of dis-
integration; the idea of a potential psychosis is not foreign
to many of them. My hesitation to call this feeling “anxiety”
results from clinical observation that these subjects are on
such almost “friendly” terms with all their pathologic poten-
tialities that sometimes it approaches the symptoms of deper-
sonalization. Intellectually they accept their anxieties, and
conceptualize them until the concept becomes void of most
of its original emotional content. The similarity to symp-
toms of depersonalization lies in their ability to look at their
own psychologic processes as an onlooker from the outside.
This again is due to the fact that all psychologic processes
and conflicts take place on the plane of consciousness. The
subjects are “emotional” but at the same time they are able
to alienate themselves from their own emotions, even being
aware of this process of alienation. This awareness contrasts
to the symptom associated with the minus k, open p con-
stellation, in which depersonalization and alienation from
emotional content also take place without the subject’s
awareness of the ongoing process of repression. Plus A,
plus p subjects frequently experience painfully, despite their
need for emotional attachment, their inability actually to
“lose” themselves in any emotional situation. It seems to
be the function of the plus k factor to make these subjects
always aware of what is going on so that they conceptualize
their own roles in any interpersonal relationship, as well the
structure of the situation itself. In this way, the plus p
factorial needs, as well as the plus k factorial needs, are
satisfied (unless, under a different definition of satisfaction,
one might say that neither of them is really satisfied). In
other words, these subjects do enter emotional relationships

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252

with persons and objects (many times to objects of art),
while at the same time they avoid complete fusion into the
object through their constant mental and intellectual
‘‘recording” of what is going on. This psychologic make-up
lends itself well to various types of intellectual and artistic
sublimation. The plus k, plus p configuration is practically
never found in nonintellectual occupations. It is a typically
“intellectual” or “artistic” (usually both) ego picture,
although the subjects belonging to this group are not the
most productive members of these professions. It appears
that lack of repression to the degree discussed counteracts
real productivity, since productivity appears to require the
ability to disregard certain contents in order to pursue those
which are most important and fruitful within the given
context. The intellectual interest of subjects with plus k,
plus pf is usually too widespread and all-inclusive to permit
the systematic development of one given problem. They
usually have many and frequent “good ideas” and sudden
insights without following them up or working them out
in detail: the intrusion of a fresh idea bars the development
of the original. This process is due to the continuous identi-
fying of the ego (plus k) with whatever content comes up in
the plus p factor.

There is much of the “Faustian” conflict and Faustian
searching for rational solutions in these subjects; “Faustian”
because, in whatever field they work, they feel tom between
the desire to approach the problem emotionally through
their “intuitive” feelings, and the desire to force themselves
to act and reason on a highly rational and intellectual level.
The product of their work, as well as their way of working,
reflects this dual attitude. The accompanying subjective
feeling is dissatisfaction with either approach, leading to
attempts to integrate the two, in which attempts they might
be more or less successful for short periods. Many times,

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 253

however, their realistic productivity stagnates because of this
conflict.

Usually in the test profiles of subjects with plus K plus p,
there is another sign which points toward the tendency to
intellectualize emotions: that is the minus h> minus s in the
S vector, with which this Sch constellation is most frequently
correlated. In terms of their sexuality this correlation means
that, for these subjects, the specificity of the love-object is
far more important than the carrying out of the sex act
itself. They are able to bear frustrations (indeed, they might
even ‘look for” frustration) rather than to compromise in
the choice of the love-object. “Love” is more important
than sexuality for these subjects. One could say that their
primarily sexual needs have been drawn into the ego, and
lived out on a higher conceptual level of “love.” The great
sensitivity and appreciation of these subjects for products of
art, literature, and music can be intepreted as another sign
of the same phenomenon.

It should be noted that the characteristics of individuals
who yield plus k, plus p are diametrically opposite to the
characteristics of subjects giving the disciplined ego, the
minus k, minus p. The briefest recapitulation of the opposit-
ness of these two groups of subjects would be that those
giving minus k, minus p are realistic in their daily lives but
irrational in regard to their own psychologic processes and
in conceptualizing the phenomena around them, while those
giving plus k, plus p tend to be unrealistic in their daily
lives, but are highly rational in regard to their attempts to
conceptualize the phenomena within themselves as well as
outside themselves. Subjects with minus k, minus p live on
a concrete level, while those with plus k, plus p live on an
abstract level of symbolization. Subjects with minus fe,
minus p, are “regular” and conforming with “average”
patterns of behavior, but in case of a break-down they
become violently antisocial. Subjects with plus plus p

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are likely to live “atypical” lives, being more concerned with
the integration of their own egos than with conforming to
social rules. They are highly narcissistic, and in this sense,
asocial, because so much of their attention is centered in
their own self. Yet they practically never will turn against
society or indulge in any violent activity. The percentage
of criminals giving this Sch configuration is zero. Subjects
associated with the configuration have a great need to assert
themselves, but only on an intellectual or “symbolic” level.

Strangely enough, serious psychopathologic breakdowns
of subjects with plus k, plus p are also rare. The plus k,
plus p constellation (which is usually associated with a minus
block, minus h and minus s in the S vector) is a counter-
indication for any serious forms of pathology. It seems that
despite the acutely experienced conflict caused by the simul-
taneous acceptance of two contradictory tendencies, the two
opposing factors have a mutually tempering effect on their
respective manifestations, thereby avoiding the breaking
through of any extreme forms of manifestations. Another
possible explanation for the apparent lack of serious symp-
toms with this 5c/z-picture is that these subjects by continu-
ously facing and intellectualizing their pathologic potentiali-
ties, actually succeed in diminishing the dynamic power of
their most dangerous needs. They practically live in a
constant process of self-analysis.

The pathologic symptoms which can be found with this
ego picture refer to cases of preschizophrenic, or character-
neurotic “pseudo geniuses” who always talk about the great
things they are going to produce, and indulge in their own
eccentricities. They enjoy being “atypical” and do every-
thing to exhibit their difference from the rest of humanity.
They usually have a sort of “sectarianism” whereby they
voluntarily ostracize themselves from society and look down
at the “average and common people.” One can usually spot
them visually by their unusual hair-do and obviously unusual

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT ^55

selection of clothing. Not seldom they live a rather para^
sitic life, since taking care of and exhibiting their own
ego takes up all their time and energy, and what is left is
spent on talking about “great things.’’ Ideologically they
look down on a regular way of living. Anybody who has
been in the cafes of New York City’s Greenwich Village is
familiar with this type. They are the grotesque caricatures
of people who live on an “abstract” level; grotesque because
their satisfaction in exhibitionism, rather than their real
experiencing of a conflict, perpetuates this mode of behavior.
There is usually a deep underlying sexual frustration and
strong latent or open homosexuality. However, even these
subjects do not turn antisocial in the active sense of the word,
nor do they break down into an open form of psychosis (or
at least very rarely). Many times there is a sort of “spon-
taneous recovery” around the end of the twenties.

At any rate, this ego picture decreases steadily beyond the
age of thirty and is never found in old age. The psychic
energy needed to keep up this intricate constellation and the
ability to bear the emotional tension of living in an acute
state of conflict on the emotional as well as intellectual level,
is too much for most subjects to keep up as an ego mechanism
for more than a few years between twenty and thirty, which
are the most consciously formative years for ego development.

Plus k with open p

The plus k, open p configuration is again not frequent in
the general population (occurring in about 4 per cent), but
as far as developmental sequence goes its discussion fits here
following the discussion of the plus k, plus p pattern since
it is one of the two most usual outcomes of the previous Sch
constellation (the other is the open k, plus p). In the period
of young adulthood the plus k, open p reaches its highest
frequency, and is given usually by the same subjects who,
previous to that stage, gave the plus k, plus p reaction. The

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256

latter, as has been described in the previous section, is an
extremely tense ego picture, containing many contradictory
elements which are simultaneously, and with equal force,
fighting for manifestation, since both tendencies have
reached the same level of consciousness. This was a critical
situation for the ego, because of the strain imposed on it by
the coexistence of the plus p (object directed libido) and
the plus k (tendency to withdraw object-libido into the ego.)
Although a critical and in a sense self-contradictory psycho-
logic state, under favorable circumstances and for a limited
period of time, this highly complex ego structure could have
a constructive effect upon the further development of the
personality because of the continuous ego building process
inherent in it, a process of ego building without a complete
withdrawal of the libido from the outside world. In the
plus k, plus p stage, this means primarily emotional and
intellectual processes were being experienced simultaneously.

This critical situation, however, even in case the person
makes use of it constructively, is not usually kept up for
a long period in anyone’s life. After a period of undecided
“fight” between the plus k and the plus p factors, there
comes, usually, a period when either the introjection of the
k wins over the outside directed tension of the p factor, or
the dynamic strength of the p succeeds in breaking down the
rigidity of the k.

The plus k, open p constellation corresponds to the process
under which the k factor succeeds in eliminating the emo-
tional tension caused by the p to the extent that the p factor
is completely drained. Usually, in the period during which
the person yields the plus k, plus p reaction, one can predict
on the basis of the profile as well as by the subject’s behavior,
whether the “instinctual dilemma” will be decided according
to the forces corresponding to the k or to the p factor. On
the test profile one can see still before the clearcut open k,
plus p or plus kj open p occurs, whether the k or the p factor

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT

has the tendency to be more loaded, and in the behavior of
subjects yielding the plus A, plus p pattern, one can dis-
tinguish between those in whose observable behavior the
characteristics corresponding to the k factor are dominating
from those who impress the outsider as primarily p factorial
persons, who only themselves are aware how much they
must fight against the “rigidifying” effects of the plus k.
On the other hand, there are subjects at this particular stage
of ego development who want to impose — and are many
times successful in this desire — ^as rigid and unemotional
individuals, while underneath this surface calmness they
experience emotions intensively. They may give the impres-
sion of being unattached and self-sufficient individuals,
while actually they experience the strongest emotional
attachment to a particular environmental object, or even
several objects (in this case, ‘"objects” meaning, nearly
always, persons). It is this type plus k, plus p individual who
is likely to change his Sch reaction into plus k, open p, indi-
cating thereby that his wish to appear self-sufficient and calm
has been achieved not only on the behavior level but in
deeper layers of his personality. Whether or not this emo-
tional self-sufficiency is actually as genuine and deep as the
plus k, open p subject would like to believe, is another
question.

Nevertheless, this Sch constellation indicates that object-
libido has been transformed “successfully” into narcissistic
libido, by way of making extreme use of the mechanism of
introjection. This means that the original object of the
libido has been incorporated into the ego (see section on
plus k) thereby making it possible to give up the original
environmental object and love one’s own self, which by then
means loving the incorporated image of the love-object once
actually needed. Because of this “identity” of love object
and the subject himself, the need inherent in the p factor,
driving to establish fusion between subject and object, can

SZONDI TEST

^58

be lived out continuously, as indicated by the open position,
since the goal of fusion has been achieved only in the direc-
tion opposite to the original intention of the p factorial
need. Instead of the person fusing into the object, the object
becomes incorporated within the person, which in fact
is the only place for the object where it can be “loved” con-
tinuously — in the literal sense — since it is the only way to
“carry” the love object wherever one goes. Thus, in this
configuration, the open p means that the need for object
love has been lived out continuously because the ego itself
became the love object.

In subjects with this Sch configuration, the process of
introjection takes place usually by way of the intellectual
process of thinking. The person faces his emotional needs
consciously, thinks them over, conceptualizes them until
very little — ^if any — of the original emotional feeling of the
needs is left. At the same time the original object of the
libido is thoroughly examined from an intellectual point of
view. The goal of these subjects is to be objective under
any circumstances, which in terms of psycho-dynamics is
equivalent to saying that these subjects want to increase the
distance between themselves and the actual object. One
can be objective only when one considers the object as
separate from the observer; that is what the word “objective”
(as against “subjective”) means. Thus, by being objective,
they alienate themselves from the real outside object while,
at the same time, by the very process of thinking about the
object, they incorporate it on an intellectual and conceptual
level. (Sense of humor and the attempt to see things in a
grotesque light is a frequent manifestation of this basic
need of keeping distance between oneself and the environ-
ment.) Now that they o^vn the conceptual image of the
object, they can think about it and practically “feel” its
existence within themselves, instead of needing the real
contact with the real object. This process of intellectual

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT ^59

introjection leads many times to sublimating a need originat-
ing in the id, in appropriate types of professions- Profes-
sions lend themselves well to channelization in the form of
intellectual and “objective” interests, such “instinctual”
needs which — in their original form due to one reason or
another — could not be accepted by the critical parts of the
ego (superego). As a matter of fact, this is not one way but
the way of sublimating through professional work. This
is the process for which Freud uses the metaphor of the horse
and the rider corresponding in our context to the p (equals
horse, equals id) and the k (equals rider, equals organizing
and critical function of the ego) which states that if the rider
is not to be parted from his horse, he is obliged to guide the
horse where it wants to go. In terms of the present Sch
configuration, this means that the k factor has to guide the
person to such type of acceptable work to which the “instinc-
tive” drive of the p factor leads it, a work which satisfies
the socially high standards of the superego, the narcissistic
requirement of self-sufficiency of the ego, and the instinctual
demands of the id, simultaneously. As can be seen, the
compromise character of sublimation is very similar to that
of compulsive symptom formation (indicated in the test by
the mirror picture of the present constellation: the minus k,
open p) although there is a great difference in terms of
libido-economics. The compulsive symptom is neurotic
because its primary function is to ward off the unaccepted
id demand while giving no real satisfaction to the person as
a whole, accumulating thereby frustration over frustration
and necessitating the mobilization of always stronger repres-
sive forces if the need should indeed not break through.
This is a most “uneconomical” way of using psychic energy,
and after a time results necessarily in a number of additional
symptoms and an increasing inability of the person to use
his energy for productive adjustment and useful work, since
gradually all his energy is used up for the purpose of repres-

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260

sion. In other words, warding off an id impulse by the
minus k mechanism brings about neurotic symptoms because
of the lack of gratification for the total personality, which is
inherent in this process. Sublimation on the other hand —
indicated by the elimination of the p tension by plus k —
wards off the unacceptable id impulse by substituting a truly
gratifying activity. Repression works by establishing bar-
riers around the need to be warded off, while sublimation
establishes channels for discharge on a highly socialized
level. How we know that this sublimated activity is “truly**
gratifying can be answered only in a pragmatic way: by the
observable fact that the person functions well, is able to
adjust to reality, and seems to get emotional satisfaction from
his work. There are undoubtedly “borderline” and “mixed**
cases, in which although the person appears to be engaged in
a sublimated activity, he indicates in his behavior the symp-
toms of continuous frustration, which shows that in this
case the individual drives himself compulsively to sublimate,
in which case the corresponding k constellation is usually
plus-minus.

One of the most interesting aspects of the Szondi test is
the way it reflects in a perceivable and “tangible** form, the
dynamic relatedness between seemingly opposite dynamisms,
such as in the present case, both the oppositeness as well
as the close relationship between repression and sublimation
is revealed by the experimental findings that the correspond-
ing difference in the Sch vector is the turning of the minus k
into a plus k, while the similarity between the two dyna-
misms is indicated by the open p constellation in both
instances, reminding us that the function of either mecha-
nism is to lower the intrusion of the id-tension within the ego.
I do not think that any of the other projective technics ful-
fills this important function of making the psychologic
dynamisms known from psychoanalytic theory, actually visi-
ble, demonstrating thereby the manner of their operation in

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 26 1

an empirical and experimental fashion instead of describing
them verbally on the basis of case material.

The frequency of the plus k, open p constellation is about
a third of the frequency of minus k, open p, (and less than
a sixth of the most popular ego picture: the minus k, minus
p), bearing out Freud’s contention that only relatively few
people have the “ability” to sublimate successfully. This
“ability to sublimate” means the readiness to exchange one
mode of attaining gratification for another (and not the
renouncing of gratification), to accept one object as a satis-
factory substitute for another. In this sense we can say that
successful sublimation presupposes a relatively great power
for symbolization, the term being used in its most general
meaning to denote the process whereby one object acquires
the significance of another to the extent that for the person
(the third entity in the process) the two objects — the original
object and the symbol of this object — ^have the same phycho-
logic meaning.*

Plus k, open p subjects have this ability to derive gratifica-
tion from symbolic activities to a greater extent than subjects
with any other reaction in the Sch vector. According to this
definition, emotional satisfaction derived from professional
or artistic work, is “symbolic” as far as it serves successfully
as a substitute for more “instinctive” and less socialized
activities. These subjects “love” their intellectual or artistic
work, or such products of others, with practically the same
intensity as other individuals love a person. For subjects
with plus k, open p reaction, this attitude towards their work
is very characteristic. The possibility is not denied that
some “residual” frustration is always implied in so extensive
an attempt for “symbolic” or sublimated satisfaction, yet if
this frustration does not go beyond a certain “optimal”

* For a detailed description of the meaning of symbolization, see
Susanne K. Langer: Philosophy in a New Key; A Study in the Sym-
bolism of Reason, Rite and Art. Penguin Books, Inc., New York.

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262

point, then it can manifest itself — instead of causing neurotic
symptoms — ^as a constructive driving force for further sub-
limated activities. The question of how much frustration is
desirable for the productive functioning of the person, and
when it does become the source of neurotic motivation, is
one of the most delicate questions in the realm of psycho-
dynamics, having something to do with subtle differential
quantities of psychic energies as well as with fine shadings
of qualitative differences. In the case of the Sch configura-
tion under discussion, the experimental findings which show
that plus A, open p is correlated most of the time with minus
h, minus s in the sexual vector, gives us a further insight
into the psychodynamics of these subjects, showing that the
transformation of the primarily sexual energy has taken
place at a very basic level of energy-organization, so that
the task of sublimating sexual libido is not burdening the k
factorial ego processes alone.

At this point, reference to psychodynamic concepts outside
the framework of the Szondi test becomes very difficult,
because of the lack of one hundred per cent overlap between
any one psychoanalytic concept and specific factorial con-
stellations in the test. Thus, we have to resort to dynamic
explanations in terms of factorial and vectorial correlations.
The dynamic correlation I want to point out here is that
all the three exclusively “plus’" constellations in the Sch
vector (the plus A, plus the plus A, open p, and the open A,
plus p) occur most frequently in conjunction with complete
minus reactions in the sexual vector (with minus h and minus
s); while all three exclusively minus reactions in the Sch
vector (the minus A, minus p, minus A, open p, and open A,
minus p) are correlated most frequently with complete plus
reaction (plus h, plus i) in the sexual vector. This clearcut
opposite correlation in the general direction of the reaction
in the S and in the Sch vectors shows that sublimation as
indicated by the ego vector occurs typically when there are

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 263

signs of the primarily sexual component — ^needs having
undergone a certain “desexualization,” as indicated immedi-
ately within the sexual vector. On the other hand, the ego
vector indicates the person’s making use of the defense
mechanism of repression and unconscious projection in case
the primary sexual drives appear in an unmodified form in
the sexual vector. To what extent the modification of the
sexual drives — ^as indicated by the minus h and minus s
constellation — ^is a primary process in itself, and to what
extent it might be considered as the result of the sublimating
processes within the ego, is an open question. Yet it seems —
at least to me — that these two main indications of sublima-
tion on the test profile are not simply reflecting two aspects
of one and the same process, but correspond to sublimating
(or desexualizing, or symbolizing) processes taking place in
different layers of the personality or, one might say, at dif-
ferent levels of energy organization the processes indicated
in the minus reactions in the sexual vector, corresponding
to the more primordial function, being related more directly
to the handling of the sexual energy per se. The plus k
and the plus p factors reflect a more inclusive type of sub-
limation at a “higher” level of energy organization, referring
to the socialized transformation of all the component needs
of the personality which are contained in the remaining six
factors of the profile, and not exclusively to the sublimation
of the primarily sexual needs. Yet the vicissitudes of the h
and ^ needs seem to exercise a specifically strong influence
on this more generalized sublimation taking place within
the ego vector, deciding to a great extent whether or not
the ego will be able to resort to the more conscious and con-
structive dynamisms, which imply the person’s facing his
own needs, or whether the ego will be forced to resort to
the more unconscious types of ego defenses.

Among the ego pictures, the plus k with open p (together
with the previous picture, the plus k plus p) is the prototype

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264

of the “introspective” and not-repressing ego mechanisms —
or “defenses,” to use the term in its most general meaning.
Their correlation with the minus h and minus s pattern,
seems to indicate that those subjects are able to face and to
accept their “instinctual” needs, whose sexuality, to start
with, is relatively “desexualized” and lends itself thereby
more easily to being channelized toward asexual and ideal-
istic goals. Just what the basic characteristics of this type of
sexuality are cannot be answered yet, but it appears that
there is something essentially inherent in the quality of the
sexual energy of those subjects who can readily deflect it
from primarily and physically sexual goals to sublimated
activities without neurotic symptom formation. (The
intensity of the pregenital and latent homosexual component
drives is most probably a decisive factor in the process of
directing sexual energy towards idealistic goals.) Even
though we cannot define these inherent qualitative peculiari-
ties of the primarily sexual energy more precisely, it should
be remembered that this flexible and “directable” kind of
sexuality is most characteristic for subjects with plus k and
open p reaction in the Sch vector.

Subjects with this ego picture seem to be able to live
without much primary sexual gratification rather easily. In
interpersonal relationship they often seem cold and unemo-
tional. The ambivalence between being “emotional” or
“rational” which was characteristic for the subjects with the
plus k and plus p configuration, seems to have disappeared
in the present configuration, the subjects in this group
impressing their environment as being purely rational
beings. In interpersonal relationship these subjects are
unable really to give themselves; they are always on guard
against getting involved emotionally. Deeper analysis of
these subjects reveals, usually, the defense character of this
apparent coldness and self-sufficiency. In many ways this
reaction can be compared to the reaction of the “burned

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 265

child’* not daring to invest emotions into persons because
of having been forced once to give up a most important love
object. The time of the occurrence of this ‘‘basic” trauma
seems to vary from person to person, within the group giving
this Sch reaction. In some cases it seems to refer as far back
as the necessary giving up of the most intensive attachment
to one parent or the other, while in other cases the traumatic
loss of an object might have occurred later in life. In all
cases, however, characteristic for these individuals is the
way they react to this trauma; namely, by passive withdrawal
rather than by any form of dynamic revolt or attempts to
gain back the object. On the contrary, the person exerts
great efforts to rid himself of the need of needing objects
altogether, and — by the above described mechanism of intro-
jecting the lost object — ^attempts to restore the narcissistic
integrity of his own ego, and establish emotional calmness
within himself. The frustration tolerance in regard to
realistic loss of objects is high in these individuals, due to
the quick — at least on the surface — ^regenerative effect of
introjection. However, the frustration tolerance in regard
to being able to bear the subjective experiencing of suffer-
ing and emotional tension is extremely low in these subjects.
In every day life these individuals are often described as
“being too proud to suffer” — ^which is quite true to a large
extent. In some ways they resemble the state of the autistic
children, who gave the plus ky minus p configuration, and
who felt able to project all of their own wishes directly
upon their own ego, establishing thereby their emotional
independence from their environment. Actually the plus ft,
open p constellation expresses the same need, only on a
more conscious level, and at a higher level of personality
development, with a correspondingly higher degree of social
adjustment, and with more awareness of the whole process,
and of the fact that what they are doing is a reaction forma-

266

SZONDI TEST

tion against the dangers involved in case they dare to give
free reign to their emotions.

The steady occurrence of this Sch picture is a counter-
indication against serious forms of pathology. It is given
frequently by rigid character-neurotics, who are able to
function well on the behavior level, but are unable to form
satisfactory emotional relationships. The same type of sub-
jects are often called “schizoid*’ individuals, who are not,
however, actually psychotic. It can be found also in the
beginning stages of depression (indicating the immediate
effect of the loss of an object), particularly in cases in which
one hesitates between the diagnoses of incipient schizo-
phrenia or incipient depression.

It has been mentioned that the characteristic age for
this Sch constellation is in early adulthood. It is unusual
to find it in children, and even more so in old age.

Open k, plus p

The frequency of the open plus p ego picture in the
general population, as well as in the age at which it appears
with particularly high frequency, is the same as the fre-
quency of the previously discussed Sch configuration, the
plus kj open p. As mentioned above, both these configura-
tions can be considered as derivatives of the plus k, plus p
pattern; the critical instinct-dilemma of that ego constella-
tion being decided once in terms of the secondary nar-
cissism of the plus ky while in other cases it is the dynamic
power of the plus p which wins over the rigidity of the
k factor. The open k, plus p corresponds to the latter case.

The plus p in this configuration indicates the dynamic
strength of the needs, driving them up “into the open,”
toward conscious forms of manifestation, and toward cathect-
ing outside objects with the libido, so that finally the need-
tension can be released in connection with objects of the
environment (see section on plus p).

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 267

The open k in this configuration shows the person's pri-
mary narcissism, i.e. the ego’s accepting and lenient attitude
towards the dynamic urgency of the needs inherent in the
plus p. In this constellation the open k indicates that there
is no internal barrier which would intend to handicap or
to modify the needs implied in the plus p. Contrary to the
situation in the previous two Sch configurations, in which
the presence of the plus k indicated the ego’s intention to
modify and intellectualize the emotional content of the
plus p, attempting thereby to free the ego from the need
to fuse into the actual love object, the lack of any measurable
tension in the k factor in the present configuration indicates
the person’s willingness freely to submit himself to the emo-
tionality of the p factor, without intellectual neutralization
of the respective needs. This means that these subjects
experience a strong need in regard to finding the proper
environmental objects to be cathected, which objects finally
will serve their function by facilitating the reduction of
the need-tension. Subjects with open k and plus p con-
stellations have to be in love with somebody or something;
many times they are “in love” with idealistic concepts.
Whatever the object of their need is, whether it is a person,
or an ideal of humanity at large, their attitude toward this
object is the same. It is the diametric opposite to the atti-
tude of the plus k, open p subjects who intend always to
increase the distance between themselves and the realistic
object in that the open k, plus p subjects do everything to
decrease the distance between themselves and the environ-
mental object which attracts their libido (or psychic energy
in general). They want to approach complete fusion into
the object as much as possible. Since one hundred per cent
fusion into anything environmental is — ^by definition —
impossible, these subjects are likely to feel frustrated no
matter how successful they seem to an outsider in estab-
lishing object relationships. What they want is complete

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SZONDI TEST

lack of resistance on the part of the object, so that nothing
is in the way of their “need to fuse.”

The child with open k, minus p reaction has lived out
this “need to fuse” without being conscious of the existence
of the need. At this early stage of ego development the
emotional content of the need was still unconscious, yet in
this — or rather, because of this — ^latent position, the dynamic
efficiency of the needs was stronger. The needs as such
were not perceived and conceptualized, since they had not
passed through the system of the preconscious; however,
they still possessed their full magical power, which prevented
the recognition of any realistic resistance on the part of
the environmental objects. Because of this all-powerfulness
of the unconscious needs, we could justly designate this as
the stage of “adualism,” meaning thereby the experience of
uninterrupted continuity between subject and object.

The subject with open k, plus p is the person who con-
sciously experiences the above described need; he wishes he
had magical power whereby he could re-establish the con-
tinuity, by then disrupted, between himself and the object
cathected. (Interest in such phenomena as hypnosis, or
scientific interest in problems of extrasensorial perception,
which is found frequently with this Sch pattern, might be
the expression of the same need to establish continuity
between subject and environment.) The fact that the p is
in plus position indicates that needs are perceived and con-
ceptualized (at least some needs) after having passed through
the preconscious. This whole process, of course, presupposes
a mther highly developed personality structure, at which
stage the differentiation between object and subject has —
naturally — taken place a long time ago. Yet, the open
plus p individual makes conscious efforts to re-establish this
prehistoric adualism, an effort which at this stage of ego
development necessarily leads to nonfulfillment. However,
at the encountering of realistic barriers (which might seem

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 269

as barriers only to such extremely demanding individuals),
the open plus p individual does not withdraw as his
dynamic opposite, the plus k open p subject would do.
Rather, he revolts against the unyieldingness of the environ-
ment. The readiness for projection, in the sense of positing
the blame for subjectively experienced failure in the out-
side rather than within the person, is characteristic for these
subjects (the tension in the p factor indicates readiness for
projection in whatever position it is). Open plus p indi-
viduals are likely to be intensively and hopelessly in love,
without retreating from such an unrewarding situation. It
appears as though they would want to experience the last
drop of emotional potentialities of any situation, whether
it means pleasure or suffering. Contrary to the plus kj
open p subjects, they do not want to save themselves from
any sort of emotional experience. Rather, they seem to
derive some masochistic pleasure even from frustrating
experiences, nor are they opposed to “exhibiting their
wounds'’ to others.

In Rankian terms, one could describe these subjects as
having never accepted, emotionally, the reality of the birth-
trauma, insisting on considering the world in general as
an enormous uterus, the function of which is to fulfill all
their needs. Anything contrary to this function is taken
as personal insult. To a certain extent, this characterization
does hold for the plus k, open p subjects as well, since they
might also be described as suffering from the trauma of
birth, or of being weaned, all their lives; yet they attempt
to avoid actual suffering by pretending that they themselves
can be their own benevolent “uterus" and the rest of the
world does not count emotionally. The open k, plus p
individual, on the other hand, does not pretend emotional
self-sufficiency, but fights actively against — ^what seems to
him — ^rigid resistance of the environment. The ambivalent
character of this type of subject is obvious from the above

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description, since love and aggression is so closely linked
in them. They love intensively and aggressively, feeling
always that their love is not sufficiently reciprocated. They
do not experience conflicts consciously within themselves,
but rather between themselves and the environment. Their
ability for introspection is limited, in spite of their being
aware of many of their needs. They — ^almost ideologically —
accept emotions as the “raison d'etre'* of human beings, and
reject detailed intellectual analysis of emotions. Despite
experience to the contrary, they believe in the omnipotence
of their own emotions (not of themselves, as in the case of
the plus k, minus p subjects, who feel the complete “auto-
plastic” omnipotence) in the sense that if only they try
hard enough, they will be able to overcome any resistance
imposed on them by the environment. This tenacity in
pursuing their goals makes them often productive in their
work, as well as genuinely creative.

In the previous section, it has been mentioned that open
plus p is also one of the three Sch configurations which
most usually are correlated to the minus h, minus s reaction
in the sexual vector. This should remind us of the fact
that the basically sexual energy of these subjects is directed
many times toward highly idealistic and, seemingly, imper-
sonal goals, such as social, political, or religious ideas for
which they fight in action as well as in written words.
Writers preoccupied with social problems frequently give
this reaction in the Sch vector. In the lower occupation
levels, this ego picture is practically nonexistent. Yet even
the sublimated activities of these subjects have, usually, a
strongly emotional coloring, which is much more apparent
in the surface behavior, as it is in the case of the plus k,
open p individuals. In subjects of the open plus p
category, the basically sexual origin of their energy can
be detected even by the clinically untrained observer.
These are the individuals who are often described in com-

SGH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 2*] 1

mon terms as doing everything as “if their life would depend
on it/* and that is actually the feeling they experience them-
selves. It should be mentioned that this ego picture, besides
being among the three most frequent ones correlated with
the minus h, minus s reaction, is also found as the most
frequent Sch configuration in conjunction with minus h,
plus Sy in which group the plus open p configuration is
one of the least frequent. The open k, plus p appears also
relatively frequently in conjunction with configurations in
the sexual vector in which either the h or the s is open.
This means that open kj plus p is not so typically correlated
with sublimation and symbolization of the sexual libido as
indicated directly within the sexual vector as was the plus A,
open p reaction. Thus, it is understandable why, in sub-
jects giving the present Sch picture, the need expressed by
the plus p is more closely related to primarily sexual goals
as well as to open aggressive behavior (high correlation with
plus s) though more in the form of aggressive self-assertion
than in actually antisocial behavior. This constellation in
the Sch vector is counter-indication for criminal behavior.
What it does indicate often is the aggressive type of social
reformer who has no doubts in regard to the correctness
of his convictions. These form the type of individuals who
were described in our discussion of the plus p constellation
as being actively fanatic; i.e., trying to impose their own
ideas on others without being willing to listen to the opin-
ions of others. They have an enormous need to express
themselves rather than to take in the ideas of other people.
In interpersonal relationships this exaggerated need for
self-expression and self-assertion might be resented by others
(particularly by individuals with minus k, plus p ego con-
stellations, who experience the same need for self-expression,
yet are inhibited in their behavior); however, if channelized
in professional work, it might manifest itself in real pro-
ductivity. Scientists who give this Sch reaction experience

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272

no difficulty in producing work, express themselves readily,
and write easily because of their full conviction of the cor-
rectness and originality of their ideas. Whether or not their
ideas are actually original is of little or no interest to a
typically open k, plus p type of person. Because of the lack
of the introjective function of the plus k, they are much
less interested in reading the work of others than in express-
ing what they feel are their own ideas, which attitude,
depending on factors outside the realm of the Szondi test,
can lead to fruitful new ideas as well as to enthusiastic
rediscoveries of generally known facts or viewpoints.
Whichever is the case, the open k, plus p individual feels
creative and confident in his own work.

This again is an Sch picture which, if stable within a
series of profiles, is rarely associated with serious clinical
symptoms. It is most rarely found in any kind of neurosis,
a finding which could be expected on the basis of the com-
plete lack of repression and acceptance of emotions. It is
found in so-called paranoid individuals, who, despite their
energetic activities and realistic successes in life, feel handi-
capped by environmental factors. (This is very different
from the feeling of insufficiency of minus k, plus p indi-
viduals who feel that they were actually unable to live up
to their own potentialities because of their inner inhibi-
tions.) They feel not duly appreciated in their intellectual
work, and not satisfactorily reciprocated in their love-rela-
tionships. Sometimes this paranoid trend reaches the extent
at which the impression is given that they actually succeeded
in mismanaging their lives, so that realistically they do not
get enough love, and become involved in one hopeless emo-
tional relationship after the other.

Sometimes this Sch picture is given by real paranoid psy-
chotics, with idealistic and religious types of delusions.
However, in this case, the position of the p factor changes
within a series of profiles.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 2^3

This configuration is given about twice its average fre-
quency by young adults and from then on decreases in fre-
quency gradually. It is practically never found in children
nor in adults beyond the age of sixty.

Plus-minus k, with plus-minus p

The plus-minus k, plus-minus p configuration is one of
the most rarely occurring ego pictures in the general popu-
lation. Its average frequency is approximately between 2-3
per cent. Yet, it should be mentioned because it represents
the coexistence of all the ego mechanisms described pre-
viously, together with those omitted (because of limitations
of space) from our individual discussion of the single Sch
configurations.

To point out the pairs of contradictory ego mechanisms
inherent in this configuration, which is the most complex
of all, will be practically sufficient to make evident the
immense psychic energy needed to keep up this ego picture
of multiple ambivalence.

The subject who gives this ego picture is simultaneously
autistic (plus kj minus p) and self-controlled (minus kj
plus p). He concentrates his libido on integrating his ego
processes consciously (plus ky plus p), and subjects himself
simultaneously to generally accepted social standards and
to environmentally imposed discipline (minus A, minus p).
He has the characteristics of the “fusing” type of personality
experiencing acutely the need to fuse with the object of
his libido (plus-minus p)y while at the same time he gives
the reaction of the person who wants consciously to get rid
of any emotional ties with which he might be bound to
persons of his environment (plus-minus k).

The coexistence of so many contradictory tendencies,
particularly within the ego vector which is assumed to rep-
resent a more organized “frame of reference” for the indi-
vidual’s dealing with the drives corresponding to the other

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274

six factors, results necessarily in the subjective experiencing
of an extremely strong tenseness, to the extent that subjects
for whom this ego-picture is characteristic feel “ready to
explode’* at any time. Their egos are actually overstrained,
and they know it. They expect almost inconceivable
achievements from their egos (or their selves) which even
in cases in which the series of test-profiles indicates that
they have succeeded in their efforts (indicated by the steadi-
ness of the plus-minus plus-minus p configuration) con-
sumes practically the total amount of the psychic energy
at their disposal. In these subjects almost all the energy
from the drives corresponding to the rest of the factors is
somehow “strained through” and concentrated in the ego.
They are highly differentiated personalities, aware of their
inner processes as well as the processes and requirements
outside of themselves, yet there is a certain aloofness in
their interpersonal relations despite their need to establish
such relations. They are aware of the fact that objects and
persons of the environment are needed for the purpose of
serving as “props” to enable them to live out their own
ego needs so that most of the spontaneous “warmth” of
interpersonal relationships is absorbed by this process. The
situation is different from the plus k, open p individual,
who also tends to appear cold in human relationships
because of his constant intellectual analysis of what is hap-
pening, However, the plus open p person tends actually
to keep himself away from relationships which appear as
though they might necessitate the mobilization of emo-
tions, and succeeds to a great extent in eliminating the need
for such relationships in himself. The plus-minus plus-
minus p individual, on the other hand, does not use
mechanisms which aim at the elimination of any need (he
rather wants to conserve the existence of his needs), but
uses, instead the mechanism of mobilizing opposing forces
of the same strength simultaneously, calling thereby in the

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 275

extreme upon the self -regulatory controlling processes of his
ego. This is the Sch configuration which indicates the per-
son’s making maximum use of conscious and unconscious
control within his ego, which results not in the elimination
but in the neutralization of the effect of any one need in open
behavior, while the subject himself experiences the presence
of all his contradictory tendencies.

The task of continuous self-integration has been also
characteristic of the plus plus p configuration, in which
self integration was simpler to fulfill than it is in the plus-
minus kj plus-minus p configuration. The plus plus p
individual can allow himself to disregard the realistic
requirements of his environment, which cannot be disre-
garded by subjects whose Sch configuration comprises the
minus A, minus p pattern.

If the plus kj plus p constellation can be called the stage
of conscious self-integration, then the plus-minus fe, plus-
minus p constellation must be called the stage of conscious
integration of the self within the realistic setting of the
environment.

The behavior of these subjects is harder to characterize
than was the behavior associated with any of the Sch con-
figurations previously discussed because of the neutralizing
effect of the coexisting contradictory tendencies. The word
“neutral” would be quite appropriate, actually, to describe
many aspects of their behavior. “Oscillating” would be
another term to characterize the behavior of these subjects
in interpersonal relationships, the oscillation between
extremes taking place within such short time units that
the end-effect approaches neutrality. For a short time they
might give the impression of a person who is emotionally
deeply involved in a situation, while immediately after,
without any outside motivation, they act in the most rigid
narcissistic manner, taking the role of the person who fights
for his independence and wants to get rid of any emotional

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276

obligation. Sometimes this double role is lived out with
two different persons, sometimes with the same one. The
same duality of behavior can be observed on the dimension
of social conformity. These subjects are the most autistic
individuals in some aspects of their lives, being concerned
with nothing but their own psychologic welfare (plus k,
plus p)y while in other aspects of their lives they willingly
(or unwillingly) submit themselves to rules and standards
prescribed by their society (plus k, minus p). Due to their
manifold psychologic potentialities, they are able to attract
and to get along, to a certain point, with a great variety
of personalities without, however, feeling really satisfied in
any one of their personal relationships. This feeling of
dissatisfaction drives them to establish numerous such rela-
tionships, so that in succession, and in connection with
various individuals, they live out, at least partially, their
own self-contradictory needs. They are usually described
as "‘colorfur* and “dynamic” personalities, who attract the
interest of the environment. They themselves get easily
interested in others; however, with all the reservation of
real emotion described above. Nevertheless it should be
repeated that in cases of this Sch configuration, this emo-
tional reservation is not evident in small units of behavior,
but only in longer spans of the subject’s life. The process
of intellectualizing emotional experiences does not take place
immediately during an experience (as in the case of plus A,
open p subjects), but following the experience.

This exceptionally controlled and integrative ego picture
is strongly correlated with the above-average intelligence
and is found rarely in nonintellectual occupations. Sub-
jects with this ego picture are many times not only intel-
lectual but definitely creative in an original way, more so
than are subjects with either plus A, open p^ plus kj plus p,
or open k, plus p constellations, for whom intellectual sub-
limitation was also characteristic. Actually nothing but the

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 277

intellectual creation is a real emotional discharge for these
subjects, whose ego needs are too manifold and too con-
tradictory to be satisfied by any more realistic experience.
By virtue of their ability to draw upon the resources of
their unconscious (existence of the minus p within the con-
figuration) they are more creatively productive than subjects
with such Sch constellations (the three mentioned above)
which indicate that the preconscious and conscious proc-
esses of intellectualization of needs have reached such an
extent that the individual can no more draw upon the emo-
tional reservoir of his own unconscious (lack of minus com-
ponent of the p ) for the sake of creative work. This intimate
connection between unconscious and conscious processes
(indicated by plus-minus reaction of the p) seems to be the
most fruitful p factorial constellation from the point of view
of original creativity. In other words, this means that too
strong attempts at strictly conscious and logical thinking
counteracts real creativity, which always seems to retain
something of the genetically more “primitive” intuitive way
of thinking. The person with purely plus p reaction expe-
riences the need for such thinking, yet extinguishes its real
effectiveness by the very process of conceptualizing it and
approaching the problem of “intuition” logically, which is
a contradiction in itself. Not seldom, open k, plus p indi-
viduals are the most emotionally violent opponents of any-
thing which reminds them of “intuition” in scientific work,
insisting on the dychotomy of “scientific” as against “intui-
tive” thinking — the emotionality of their standpoint deriv-
ing its intensity from their own wish to be able to allow
themselves — sometimes — to use their “intuition.” A plus-
minus ky plus-minus p individual is not afraid of making
use of whatever power he feels to exist in himself, yet he
attempts to integrate his “intuitive” insights into a scien-
tifically acceptable system (the latter being the function of
the plus ky plus p in the configuration). Another char-

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278

acteristic feature of the intellectual sublimation of plus-
minus k, plus-minus p subjects, is that neither theoretical
nor practical approach alone satisfies them, but, again, only
the integration and the coexistence of these two approaches.
The subjective feeling accompanying their work is much
less unambiguous than it was in subjects with open k, plus p,
who feel consciously so certain about their being right.
Individuals with the Sch picture under discussion live in
constant doubt about everything they are doing, since, due
to the complexity of their potentialities, they can always
think of another way (or many other ways) in which the
respective work could have been done. It is hard for them
to part from their own product, and they have the tendency
to do the same work several times, always changing their
methods of approach.

The pathologic significance of this Sch configuration refers
to the same subjective uncertainty which in turn derives
from the unusual stress imposed upon the ego by the simul-
taneous existence of the manifold ambivalent tendencies.
The pathologic manifestations of this feeling under stress,
are various symptoms of anxiety, mainly hypochondriac
anxiety. The tenseness of the psychologic situation is per-
ceived in physical terms, and is actually many times the
cause of physical heart symptoms (paroxysmal tachycardia).
In other cases, the subject’s experiencing of having made
excessive use of the ego-controlling mechanisms, results in
an almost phobic anxiety of a psychologic breakdown. They
have a premonition of an approaching psychosis. The
occurrence of psychotic breakdowns is actually more fre-
quent in cases of plus-minus p, plus-minus k, than it is in
cases of plus plus pj in which the anxiety of psychosis
is also frequently present. In those cases, however, the stress
upon the ego was actually less, since the ambivalence within
the k and within the p factors was absent. The ambivalence

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT

in regard to whether the needs should be faced, whether
anxiety in itself should be faced and integrated consciously
as a personality trait (which was the case in the plus k,
plus p subject) or should be repressed from consciousness,
seems to be more connected dynamically with an actual
predisposition for a psychotic breakdown; while the more
manifest but subjectively accepted “prepsychotic” behavior
of some plus plus p subjects has very little correlation with
a real psychotic breakdown.

The plus-minus k, plus-minus p configuration is found
rather frequently in individuals with relatively weak, sex-
drive, since these individuals attempt to channelize even
their sexual impulses through their egos. They get some
sort of sexual satisfaction from primarily nonsexual rela-
tionships, but experience difficulty in establishing satis-
factory real sexual relationships. From the strong corre-
lation of this Sch configuration with minus d, minus in
the Contact vector, we can interpret a basic fixation upon
a realistically unavailable love object, with no attempt actu-
ally to secure this object. The analysis of such subjects
has shown their usually unresolved simultaneously positive
and negative Oedipal conflict. Their overall ambivalence
in their egos might be a later elaboration of this basic
unresolved ambivalence, with all concomitant ‘‘double”
attitudes in their interpersonal relationships, and also their
simultaneous masculine and feminine identification, which
in these subjects, is many times a conscious source of con-
flict. This conflict could not be adequately characterized
as latent homosexual conflict, because of the essentially
asexual character of these subjects.

This Sch configuration is found in no age group among
the four most frequent ego pictures. Most frequently it
occurs in puberty and adolescence. It can also be found
in adults, but practically never in very old subjects-

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280

Open k, open p

The underlying similarity between this and the previous
ego picture, the plus-minus ky plus-minus p, is greater than
one might think after the obvious visible differences between
these two Sch configurations. The similarity refers to the
overemphasis of the ego processes in the plus-minus k, plus-
minus p constellations as well as in the open ky open p.
In both cases the subject intends to solve all his “instinctual’’
tensions and conflicts through making extreme use of his
ego functions. In fact, the aim of both of these ego-
dynamisms is to deny the importance of any of the drives
corresponding to the rest of the factors, and to try to live
through nothing but the ego. In dynamic terms, this means
that subjects with either of these Sch pictures intend to
manipulate their partial drives consciously, by allocating
to them the channelization through the ego as the most
desirable way of discharge. The result in both cases is that
much of the “instinctual” (or spontaneous) character of
the drives are being absorbed by the time they appear in
manifest behavior. In whatever way, and to whatever
extent, these subjects act, they do it consciously; they con-
sciously direct their own actions, the ego fulfilling almost
consciously the role of the “stage-director,” and actor simul-
taneously. This is probably more or less the role of the
ego in any case; however, in the present two ScA-configura-
tions, the subject’s experiencing this function of the ego
gives a strongly schizoid character to the picture; namely,
the subjective experiencing of being split into a “driving”
and an “executive” system. This deeply seated schizoid
character of subjects with either of these two Sch configura-
tions, can be detected by thorough analysis of their per-
sonality even in cases in which the surface presentation of
behavior seems smooth and well-functioning. Whatever
has been said until now about the characteristics of the
subjects giving open k with open py refers only to those

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 28 1

cases in which this is a steady Sch reaction within a series
of ten profiles.

Besides the above described similarities between the
dynamics of the open k, open p configuration, and the plus-
minus plus-minus p and the Sch configuration, there are
considerable differences, resulting in behavior patterns dif-
fering enough to be rather easily discernible by an outside
observer. The obvious dynamic difference is that while
the plus-minus k, plus-minus p individual operates by call-
ing consciously upon the self-regulatory controlling forces
within the ego (plus-minus position in both ego factors),
without attempting to eliminate the extreme tension which
thereby is brought about within his ego, the open k, open p
individual is acting out his drive through his ego to such
an extent that the tension within the ego is completely (as
far as the test can indicate) eliminated. These subjects
are unable to bear the subjective feeling of such controlling
mechanisms which imply a state of balanced tension within
their egos. It might be that they feel that their controlling
mechanisms are too weak to function eflSciently, or they
might feel that the tension in their partial drives consti-
tutes too much danger to be discharged directly, yet they
have to discharge them somehow, thus the relatively least
harmful way is to let them be discharged after they have
passed through the modifying channels of the ego.

The high correlation between this Sch configuration and
the completely ambivalent, bisexual reaction in the sexual
vector (plus-minus h, plus-minus s) points toward the prob-
ability of the second hypothesis. By all means, the ego
of these subjects acts out continuously something, often on
the verbal level. The behavior of these subjects is char-
acteristically active (still with reference to those cases in
which open k, open p is a constant Sch reaction), many times
to the extent of compulsive activeness, yet never in the sense
of a definite compulsive-neurotic symptom formation. These

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282

individuals simply experience an urge in regard to doing
something all the time; they must fill up time with some
activity; if there is nothing else to do, then with talking.
The dynamic explanation of this behavior lies in the con-
nection (or perhaps in the partial identity) between the
ego and the motor-system; thus in order to alleviate the
organism from unbearable tensions, the ego resorts to mak-
ing excessive use of the motor-system. This strong drive
for activity in subjects with open A, open p has many times
socially positive manifestations, since the fact that primary
drives are not released directly but through the ego implies,
most of the time, socialized or sublimated forms of dis-
charge. Not the type of activity, but the manner in which
these subjects drive themselves to be active all the time,
gives the impression of compulsiveness. These are often
the people who, one feels, want to lose themselves in what-
ever they are doing; in fact, the exaggerated activity is
often motivated by this unconscious, and sometimes even
conscious, wish to lose their own identity. Depending on
the accompanying constellation of the s factor, this activity
is really active or passive in nature. By passive activity,
I mean such manifestations as excessive reading, movie or
theater-going, by means of which the activity of others are
experienced through identification. In open open p
subjects, these activities are frequent. These are the persons
who take from the library one book after the other for
the sake of the activity of reading, with little concern about
choosing specific works they want to read. Their movie-
going has the same character; they go for the sake of filling
up time and their minds with whatever is offered, with no
particular enjoyment. The function of these activities is
again to permit them to lose themselves by identifying with
a great variety of various characters. What they do not
want is time to experience themselves the way they really
are. Yet this “running away** from themselves, in the case

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 283

of open open p subjects, does not imply repression in
the sense of the minus open p configuration. In that
case, the subjects were repressing successfully, which means
that they were not aware of the process or of the content
of what they wanted to repress. In the present Sch con-
figuration, however, the subjects have usually fairly good
insight into their own personality (no sign of active repres-
sion), and exactly because they know what they do not want
in themselves, they try to fill up their time with activities
which “take their mind off*’ themselves. Most probably it
is just this lack of actual repression which helps them to
avoid real neurotic symptom formations. Subjects for whom
this is the characteristic Sch reaction, “act” continuously,
either professionally or in their daily lives. They are exhibi-
tionistic through their ego, which means on a more con-
scious level than the exhibitionism as was described in
connection with the '"hy"' factor. Many times it is an intel-
lectual or consciously artistic exhibitionism, being conscious
of their wanting to impress people as a certain “interesting”
type of personality. At other times, there are definite types
of personalities whom they want to impersonate throughout
their lives, with every action of their life. For example,
they might be consciously “charming” in interpersonal rela-
tions, in which case the psychologically trained observer can
definitely sense the compulsive-defense character of the
almost exaggerated “charm” This particular “role” is
chosen usually by those subjects who feel their strong basic
aggressive tendencies, and make a conscious decision of not
wanting to be aggressive. Again, the process is different
from simple repression, and is not unusual in individuals
who have, at least for a while, undergone psychoanalysis,
whereby they were faced with their own drives and given
the possibility to choose consciously which they wanted to
accept or reject.

On the basis of similar mechanism, this Sch configuration
is given often by basically masculine types of women who

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284

decided to live in a definitely “feminine role/’ These are
often women with strong intellectual drive, as well as with
physical characteristics of masculinity, whose actual life,
however, is completely “feminine,” in that they throw
themselves compulsively into the role of efficient house-
wife, and self-sacrificing wife or mother. The results might
be fairly successful, since they get multiple emotional
“rewards” if they fulfill the chosen role well. They might
win appreciation from their environment as well as from
themselves because of the feeling that they were able to
live up to their own ego ideal, yet, at the very bottom of
their consciousness, they are aware of the unrealness of
their lives. Despite the impression they give of complete
loss of themselves in their activities or their roles, there
is a kernel of their personality which is encapsulated, and
which remains their “private property” no matter how
sociable and how “fusing” they appear on the surface. (In
this respect they are similar to the plus-minus k, plus-minus p
individuals.) To use a quantitative metaphor, we might
say that 90 per cent of their ego is extremely flexible and
adjustable to environmental requirements, but the remain-
ing 10 per cent is completely rigid and narcissistic, resisting
change by any environmental influence. Again we have
arrived at the fact that these subjects are basically strongly
schizoid because they are able to live and function as “split”
personalities. In Jungian terms, one could characterize
them as having a strongly developed “persona” inside of
which there is a basically autistic and nonadjusting part
of the self. The definition of the term persona is the fol-
lowing in Hinsie and Shatzky (quoting Jung), Psychiatric
Dictionary^ Oxford University Press: “ ‘Mask for actors;
impersonated character. . . With this term Jung denotes
the disguised or masked attitude assumed by an individual,
in contrast to the more deeply-rooted personality com-
ponents. ‘Through his more or less complete identification
with the attitude of the moment, he at least deceives others.

SCH VECTOR AND STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 285

and also often himself as to his real character. He puts
on a masky which he knows corresponds with his conscious
intentions, while it also meets with the requirements and
opinions of his environment, so that first one motive then
the other is in the ascendant. This definition of the

“persona*' coincides so perfectly with the interpretation of
the open open p configuration that practically nothing
more has to be said about it except that, in a case in which
this configuration appears in a series of profiles suddenly,
following more loaded and changing Sch configurations, it
is often the indication of a sudden break-down of the more
repressive defense mechanisms, and can indicate the begin-
ning of a psychotic process. In nonpathologic cases, the
sudden draining of the whole Sch vector can be found in
the artist immediately following the “draining** of his ego
through a creative act.

The pathologic significance of this Sch configuration in
cases in which it appears as a steady feature of the person-
ality, refers primarily to symptoms of depersonalization
which can appear in cases of severely compulsive characters,
without specific symptoms. The corresponding complaints
are usually that they “act without feeling**; that is, they go
through the routine of life in a perfunctory way, without
an accompanying feeling of “emotional significance** of what
they are doing. They do not suffer particularly, but they
cannot enjoy either, and because of sudden feelings of aim-
lessness they might voluntarily seek the help of a therapist.
The analytic work with such patients is extremely hard, just
because of the lack of specific symptoms, because of the
surface calmness and efficiency of their behavior, and mainly
because of their stubborn defense against transference,
although they are very polite and “well-behaving** patients.

The age-distribution of this Sch configuration is similar
to that of the plus-minus k, plus-minus p.

Chapter XI

Syndromes and Case Illustrations

WITH THE discussion of the open k, open p configura-
tion we have finished as much of the presentation of the
theory of interpretation as we intended to include in this
introductory book. As thoroughly as I have tried to indi-
cate the varying meanings of the single factorial and vectorial
configurations, pointing out the way in which they depend
on the total pattern of all the eight factors and the entire
series, this method of discussion, in which we examine the
single constellations in succession, falls short, necessarily,
of an integrated picture of personality interpretation based
on test findings. Nevertheless, this method is the only
feasible introductory step to a test involving so manifold
and complex a series of assumptions and reasonings accom-
panying each of the eight basic factors. It may be that
a more pragmatic introduction, hinging on immediate
presentation of a great number of concrete examples and
deriving from actual case histories the corresponding syn-
dromes on the test profiles, would have seemed more prac-
tical and more satisfactory to many clinical practitioners.
Dwelling less on the dynamic implications of interpreta-
tion, and listing more ‘‘signs’’ and syndromes with accom-
panying one-sentence interpretations, the book would have
approached more the character of a manual which could
be used as a “dictionary” to find the “meaning” of specific
test profiles. However, this is exactly, the use I wanted to
avoid, although I am aware that the book might have been
more “popular” that way. As has been said, the aim

286

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 287

o£ this introduction is to reproduce, as closely as possible
verbally the dynamic processes which are assumed to underlie
the specific choice reactions made in the test. In other
words, its aim is to remove as far as possible the “mystic”
character of the test and to account for the various mean-
ings of the various reactions in terms of dynamic psychology,
which in this case often means psychoanalytic theory.

I know that my hope and my aim is to convince at least
a few of those skeptical psychologists and psychiatrists who
readily think in terms of dynamic and psychoanalytic psy-
chology but for whom interpreting “deep” psychologic-
characteristics on the basis of a peculiar pattern of red and
blue squares seems absolutely unbelievable, if not completely
ridiculous. Whether or not this book will succeed in reach-
ing this aim, even to a minimal extent, I cannot judge
myself. I know only that it seems to me more important
to convey, at least to some degree, the thinking implied in
interpretations to a few clinicians who are concerned with
what, essentially, a new projective technic is “all about,”
than it is to compile a practical and easy-to-use manual to
facilitate the production of a great number of fairly accurate
interpretations by less skeptical psychologists whose main
concern is the addition of a new test to their battery, and
who would be ready to use the test by means of reference
to various plus and minus reactions, “signs,” and syndromes,
without worrying about the reasons for these interpretations
so long as they appear to be clinically valid.

Now that we have reviewed the “basic processes” of inter-
pretation, it is clearly necessary to discuss more in detail
the involved interfactorial correlations, the normal person-
ality, and clinical “syndromes,” with ample illustrative case
material. This will be the content of the forthcoming sec-
ond volume. In the framework of this introduction, we
shall have to limit ourselves to the brief presentation and
discussion of a few cases, chosen as representative of char-

288

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acteristic constellations and “syndromes.” In order to cover,
at least briefly, more varied and extensive material, some of
the cases will be illustrated with only one or two profiles
which duly represent the subject’s basic personality struc-
ture; in other words, cases in which reactions are fairly
stable throughout a longer series. Yet it should be remem-
bered that such a presentation and interpretation on the
basis of one or two profiles, can be done only for didactic
purposes on the basis of external evidence that these profiles
do represent the subject’s basic personality pattern, and not
to illustrate habitual clinical practice, in which one can
never predict the possible range of variability of reactions
within a series of ten profiles, and in which one can make
gross misinterpretations from consideration of only the first
few profiles as reflecting the subject’s basic personality
structure. (See Chapter IV in regard to the meaning of
changes.)

a b

Fig. 9. Interpretation 1. a. T. T., 23 year old husband
b, N. T., 23 year old wife.

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 289

The profiles in Figure ga, b have been chosen first
because o£ the specific constellations of the reaction in the
Sch vector. We have not discussed the plus-minus k, open p,
and the open plus-minus p configurations under separate
headings since the interpretation of either of these con-
figurations is so much related to the meaning of the other,
in that individuals giving these two reactions are found many
times to form a special type of unhappy couple. Conse-
quently, it seemed to me more adequate to discuss these
two ego pictures in their relationship to each other in con-
nection with a concrete example.

The obvious characteristics of profile (a), (the husband)
are the following:

Most loaded factor is the k, in plus-minus position.

Interpretation: Dynamically the strongest need is that of
keeping up the narcissistic integrity of the personality. For
that purpose, both mechanisms, introjection (plus as well
as repression (minus k) are made use of. The person is
conscious of this narcissistic need to keep himself ‘‘free’*
and detached from any emotional bonds to other persons
(plus-minus position).

Open reactions are found in the A, the and the p factors.
These are the “tension-less” areas of the personality.

Interpretation: Open h, with open if it is a recurring
pattern, indicates sexual immaturity if given by an adult;
no sexual need experienced subjectively; fixation at an
infantile level.

Open p^ (with plus-minus k) means that the tension cor-
responding to the object directed libido of the p factor has
been absorbed by the function of the k factor. In other
words, object-libido has been transformed “successfully”
into narcissistic libido. The person no longer feels the
need to cathect (love) objects of the environment, because,
in the present case in which open p appears with plus-
minus kj the original id impulse has been partially desexu-

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290

alized through intellectualization (introjective process indi-
cated by plus k) partially repressed (minus k). This ego
picture indicates the most conscious fight against any sort
of “unmodified” emotional attachments to persons of the
environment. More important than anything else is the
need to keep up the “organization” of one's own ego in
persons with plus-minus and open p. Emotional inde-
pendence from their environment constitutes their central
problem. The fact that they have to employ two mecha-
nisms, which in some ways are opposed to each other, results
in subjectively experienced anxiety, this constellation rep-
resenting to a certain degree the failure of the introjective
mechanisms as well as that of repression. Yet in their
behavior they appear calm, “organized,” and able to pursue
their own goals without being disturbed about the possible
effects of their behavior on others (no tension in the p factor
always indicating the lack of such projective manifestations
as sincere “sympathy” or “empathy,” psychologic processes
underlying these phenomena presupposing the existence of
unmodified object-directed libido). Individuals with this
Sch configuration combine the characteristics of the subjects
with plus k and open pj and those of subjects with minus k
and open p. In other words, these are the subjects who
compulsively drive themselves to sublimate. Their behavior
is really similar to that of compulsive neurotics, except that
the kind of activity they feel as compulsive is often of a
sublimated nature, which dynamically implies that despite
the existing feelings of anxiety, they are able to derive
some “real” emotional (that is, in this case, narcissistically
emotional) gratification from their work. Since the plus-
minus k reaction is relatively least frequent in the age group
comprising young adults (see section on plus-minus k), it
deserves specific consideration as an “unusual” reaction in
cases in which it does appear in the age between twenty
and thirty. Reactions which are atypical for the chrono-

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS SQl

logical age of the subject, as well as factorial correlations
which are ‘‘atypical” are always useful as starting points
to interpret the specifically unique and individual per-
sonality pattern of the subject in question.

The most loaded vector as a whole is the paroxysmal
vector y in profile (a), giving plus-minus e, with plus hy.

Interpretation: Emotional control is a “tension” area in
this person. He experiences conscious conflict in regard
to the manner in which he might deal with his aggression
(plus-minus e)^ while his exhibitionistic needs are accepted
subjectively without causing any conflict (plus hy). The
fact that the plus e^ plus hy pattern is implicit in the present
vectorial configuration shows that the emotional exhibition-
ism of the plus hy is prevented by the superego (plus e)
from having truly antisocial manifestations, while the fact
that the configuration also implies the minus e^ plus hy con-
stellation points towards the existence of more ruthless
exhibitionistic drives. Correlating these findings in the P
vector with the open s, we can assume that the person is
discharging aggression in the form of steady activity, which
more or less remains within socially acceptable limits; yet
one can also find manifestations of a basically asocial or
antisocial nature in the person.

Interpreting the loadedness of the P vector in the light
of what has been stated about the ego picture of this 23 year
old man, one can say the following: direction of emotional
inflation through strictly narcissistic channels is attempted
(and successfully so). The coexistence of the plus hy with
a plus k reaction (at least one part of the k factor being
positive in the present case) is always a “sign” for strongly
narcissistic-exhibitionistic drives. In other words, emotions
are not directed toward objects but toward the ego, and
persons of the environment are needed only insofar as
they constitute the “audience” for the person’s exhibition-
istic manifestations (plus hy). The relative successfulness,

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292

or rather, the strength of these narcissistic-exhibitionistic
drives, is shown in the fact that the p factor is drained, which
means that the person no longer experiences the need to
fuse into objects of his environment.

The Contact vector (C) is the most balanced area in the
entire profile, as indicated by the fact that neither of the
two factors is strongly loaded or quite open. The twin
factors of the C vector are treated alike in this case, both
showing an average reaction of three choices, distributed in
the most balanced way: two in one direction, with a counter-
balancing one choice in the other direction. Also, the asso-
ciation of a mildly minus d reaction (rejection of the need
for “anal” hoarding and mastering of material objects) is
most harmonious with the mildly plus m reaction (accept-
ance of the need to enjoy objects of the environment).

Interpretation: Despite all the previously mentioned con-
flicts and immaturity of the personality, this man is able
to establish and maintain a satisfactory relationship with
his environment. He is able to enjoy whatever relation-
ships he establishes' (the kind of relationship he does estab-
lish being indicated by the constellations of the other factors
and having been interpreted above as exhibitionistic-
narcissistic type, with aggressive characteristics, and asexual
in character).

The minus d, plus m configuration indicates a basically
optimistic attitude toward the world, considering the envi-
ronment as a source which can offer possibilities for “oral”
type of gratifications. Minus d, plus m persons are usually
faithful to a specific object of the libido, the object for sub-
jects in this C vectorial category being usually an idea, to
which they cling with the same intensity as a child clings
to his mother. The plus m indicates that there is actually
something (whether person or idea) to cling to, and the
fact that the plus m is not loaded (just mildly positive)
indicates that the person feels rather secure in regard to

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 293

his relationship to this ‘‘ideal” object. Minus d indicates
that no physical eflEort is required to bring about this satis-
factory relationship. It also shows that the person is “stick-
ing” to his particular object. This constellation is found
mostly in professional groups (see section on minus plus m
configuration) for whom the kind of work they do repre-
sents the “ideal” object, the work they can enjoy, and to
which they are faithfully adhering. It is an idealistic pic-
ture, given by persons for whom the kind of work they
do is more important than the financial reward for the work,
but who, on the other hand, do not like to spend the money
earned. The steady pleasurable object relationship in these
subjects is usually due to their ability to establish object
relationships by way of thinking; in other words, their power
of symbolization is usually high. Ideas for them can have
the same emotional value as realistic objects do for other
types of subjects. This is a typically “adult” picture, given
by basically mother-fixated individuals, who however, do
not suffer frustration from being forced to give up attach-
ment to the mother. In reality, they were able to transfer
the same intensity of the feeling “to be attached” to more
symbolic forms of attachments (science, art, political ideals).

Integration of the part-interpretations: T. T. is a sexually
infantile, strongly narcissistic individual. His aim is to be
detached emotionally from his environment, yet he needs
persons for the sake of having an “audience” for his exhi-
bitionistic drives. His superego is developed but not func-
tioning in a quite reliable way. Due to the strength and
the eSiciency of his ego, his id impulses are kept under
control and are never allowed to appear in behavior, unless
modified and neutralized by the ego functions. This is
achieved by the simultaneous use of repression and intro-
jection. Despite some compulsive characteristics, this person
is able to derive considerable satisfaction from his ability
to sublimate, as indicated by his optimistic and friendly

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294

attitude toward the world. It appears as though he were
able to find ways to live out his exhibitionistic-narcissistic
needs in reality, in a fairly sublimated form, although there
is still a drive of sufiicient strength to get more satisfaction
of this sort. Despite his experiencing anxiety, most prob-
ably in connection with his need to obtain visible indica-
tions of success, he seems to function successfully as far
as arranging his own life is concerned. In interpersonal
relationships, however, he must be cold and unconcerned
about the feeling of others, just as a young, egoistic child
must be. His basically asexual personality also helps him
to keep himself organized and to concentrate all his efforts
on his ego needs. Egoistic pursuit of some sort of pro-
fessional success is most probable, with actual success
achieved. Without reviewing his case history now, we can
add that he most probably fulfills his role as husband in a
very unsatisfactory way, since all his libido is used up for
narcissistic purposes, precluding a sincere need for hetero-
sexual relationship. As far as one can judge from this profile,
the only function of his wife he really needs is that of audi-
ence to appreciate his intellectual achievements.

Profile (b)

The most loaded reaction is in the m factor, the subject
having chosen all the six m portraits, five as liked, one as
disliked.

Interpretation: Dynamically, the strongest need in this
young woman is her need to cling to objects of the environ-
ment for the sake of obtaining love and support from them.
The extreme loadedness of this factor indicates the anxious
quality of this clinging. It shows that the subject feels
helpless and insecure unless there is something or somebody
to cling to, yet she feels the danger of the possible loss of
the love object. She has a strongly “oral” character, and
possibly exhibits a great variety of oral characteristics, such

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 295

as talking, eating, smoking, drinking, or, on a more sub-
limated level, a drive to cling to objects for intellectual
or artistic enjoyment. In the case of such extreme loaded-
ness, one has to think of some neurotic manifestations of
this oral need for dependency, although that does not exclude
the possibility that oral characteristics of a more sublimated
nature are also present in the same person. Nevertheless,
it does indicate that sublimated activities do not quite satisfy
the basic oral need, otherwise we would not get this reaction
of choice of all the m portraits, which in either direction
indicates frustration in this area. The fact that the choices
are for the most part positive shows her still optimistic
attitude in regard to the possibility of satisfying this need
in a socially acceptable, positive way. She still expects
“help” and love from her environment, and does not turn
against the objects which cause her frustration. It also indi-
cates her own willingness to give aflEection to others.

Open, tension-less reactions are in the k, and d factors.

Interpretation: Open e means that emotions are discharged
readily; if this is a recurring constellation, then it shows that
she is an irritable person who easily gives vent to small
amounts of aggression rather than accumulating aggression
and discharging it in antisocial forms. Psychosomatic symp-
toms can be indicated in open e also; however, in this case it
is not probable because of the open k factor (psychosomatic
symptoms usually accompanying open e and minus k). In
addition, the fact that the open e in this profile consists
of one positive and one negative choice is a counterindica-
tion of serious e factorial (epileptoid) symptoms.

The open k reaction shows that the organizing power
within the ego is weak, the person is poorly differentiated
as a separate and integrated unit from the environment.
She does not make use of the mechanism of secondary nar-
cissism, which means that she does not withdraw, in case
of frustration, her libido from the love object. She has

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296

no strong boundaries around her self, and thus exposes her-
self to be hurt in the event of frustration. She does not
experience herself as an individual who can stand alone,
but only in connection with another person. At this point
we have to explain this specific constellation of open k with
plus-minus p in its relationship to the plus-minus k with
open p. The open k, plus-minus p configuration is the ‘‘par
excellence” reaction of individuals who feel, and actually
are, rejected in a specific personal relationship; namely, in
the relationship which for them is the most important, and
which they are not willing to give up even in view of obvious
signs of rejection by the “partner.” Neither do they deny
to themselves the fact that they are rejected (no minus k).
Yet they insist on attempting to fuse into their “love object,”
despite all the objectively perceived difficulties. The plus-
minus constellation of the p factor reflects the conscious
conflictual character of the need to fuse into an object.
Our subject is aware of her conflict, but not of the real
nature of the need which drives her to this one particular
person and not to another (minus p). Analysis of subjects
giving this particular Sch reaction has shown that these are
individuals who have never overcome the trauma of having
been weaned from the mother. They became fixated at
that particular stage of ego development which corresponded
to the trauma of weaning, and were not able or willing
to make the next step which would have led them to the
development of a plus k reaction, i.e. to a narcissistic with-
drawal of the libido from the frustrating object, which
would have been a necessary step toward developing the
integrity of their own egos. Instead, they insisted on remain-
ing in the frustrating situation, which hardly would be
conceivable unless they derived some sort of masochistic
gratification from the experience of suffering. In fact, adults
giving this particular ego picture have always concomitant
masochistic personality characteristics. They seem to drive

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 297

themselves into situations in which the “primary** trauma,
that of being rejected by the mother, can be relived. And
here we arrive at a possible dynamic explanation of the
reason subjects with the open plus-minus p reaction invest
their libido so many times in individuals with plus-minus
open p reactions. They attach themselves to persons by
whom they least can hope to be really accepted and loved.
Our open plus-minus p subject clings with all her force
to her plus-minus A, open p husband whose main goal in
life is to rid himself of any personal attachments and redi-
rect all his libido toward himself.

The “trauma of weaning*’ has been, we hypothesize,
extreme for subjects with either of these two ego pictures,
yet their reaction to it is diametrically opposite. While
the individual with the plus-minus k, open p reaction “sets
out” never to let himself become emotionally involved again
in a situation in which he can be the person to be aban-
doned, the open k, plus-minus p reaction reproduces the
primary trauma over and over again in all his later rela-
tionships. The question in regard to what the decisive
factors might be in determining which of these two types
of reaction the person will develop cannot be analyzed more
deeply within this context. Yet discussion to this extent
gives us enough insight into the otherwise paradoxical find-
ings that two individuals with such incompatible ego struc-
tures should be found regularly forming a couple of any
sort — ^husband and wife, unhappy yet close friends, or parent
and child who seem unable to live either with or without
each other. In such unhappy relationships, the perpetuating
factor is most probably the narcissistic and the sadistic satis-
faction on the part of the plus-minus k partner, who is
gratified by constantly proving to himself that he is able
to keep up his unemotional integrity despite the efforts
of the other person to fuse into him. He is now undoubtedly
the person who is “stronger” in that he is the more self-

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298

sufficient. On the part of the plus-minus p partner, the
perpetuating force which makes the person stick to such
apparently unrewarding relationship is some sort of a com-
plex masochistic satisfaction derived from the primary asso-
ciation between the feeling of love and rejection; condi-
tioned, as it were, by the first experience of that sort in
connection with the mother. There is some clinical evi-
dence that this masochistic reaction is likely to develop in
the person whose mother has been actually a sadistically
forceful personality, and in whom the feeling of being
rejected was based on realistic experience in the subject’s
childhood.

Returning to the profile of N.T., and correlating those
two aspects of her profile which have been thus far inter-
preted, we can see that the dynamics of the open fe, plus-
minus p ego picture seem to be borne out in this specific
case, as indicated by the extreme tension in the need for
dependence and clinging (m factor). In the section con-
cerning the p factor, it has been said that the specific con-
tent of the need which demands expression through the
p has to be read off in the rest of the test profile, namely in
the most loaded, i.e. the most dynamic and tense factor.
In the case of N.T. this means that it is the need for oral
dependency which is most frustrated and which has inflated
the ego to cause consciously experienced conflict (plus-
minus p) in her need to fuse into an object. The loaded
plus m defines for us the specific character of the relation-
ship she unsuccessfully strives for. She wants to establish
a relationship in which she can be the passively clinging
person who needs an excessive amount of motherly love
and support from her love-object. She still needs to be
“nursed.”

The open d reaction in this case might mean that she
is weary of looking for an adequate object, although she
knows that the old object is really not worth holding on to.

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 209

This means she is not interested in the “anal” type of
possessive and mastering kind of object relationship; there
is no “anal” tenacity in her actively pursuing an object.
She merely tries to cling to the object nearest to her, with-
out having the strength to change realistically the status-
quo. It shows an easy-going attitude in regard to material
objects and wanting to enjoy them, rather than to accumu-
late and master them (open dj plus m). Yet, faced by tension
to this extent in the m factor, we cannot imagine a really
happy, easy-going person except as a person who is “easy-
going” in an apathetic way.

It has been mentioned in the section concerning the
open d constellation that in a certain configuration the
open d might mean an actually depressed mood, as a surface
symptom. Open d^ with this anxious clinging indicated
in the strong plus and with the open k, plus-minus p
configuration in the Sch vector, is a typical pattern in which
open d must be interpreted on this level of manifest symp-
toms of depressed mood. It also has been mentioned that
this is always an apathetic — ^and not the worrying — type of
depression (the latter being indicated by plus d). Subjects
with open d and plus m have been described as character-
istically passive in their relationship to objects, having no
drive to manipulate objects and situations actively. In social
contact they are pleasant, nonaggressive, and desirous to
please (all in the hope of getting some love in return).
The open d indicates that although our subject is unable
to initiate change in her situation, if such a change should
be forced upon her due to external circumstances she would
be able to adjust to it fairly easily, although in the present
case, as long as her ego reaction remains the same, she would
most probably find another similarly frustrating object rela-
tionship. The open d^ plus m configuration shows also her
drive to sublimate her orality, yet the lack of success of such
efforts is indicated by the existence of extreme tension in
the m factor.

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300

After the Contact vector, the second most disproportion-
ately treated is the Paroxysmal vector. Besides the open e..
there are four negative choices in the hy.

Interpretation: Although this configuration has not been
discussed separately among the P vectorial configurations, the
open e, minus hy does represent a characteristic emotional
reaction; namely, that of acutely experienced anxiety, not
of the diffuse kind which would be indicated by minus e,
minus hy^ but a more systematized and objectified anxiety.
The minus hy shows that this person is rather reluctant to
manifest her emotions openly — ^not any kind of emotions,
but specifically her tender object-directed feelings. She
hides her real feelings and exercises control over her exhibi-
tionistic needs, although the loadedness of the hy factor
indicates that she does not experience such needs. This
reaction is usually a sign of a well-functioning superego,
which does not allow the person to live out her childish
need for narcissistic-exhibitionistic satisfaction. (It should
be remembered that her husband gave exactly the opposite
reaction; namely, he completely accepted these exhibition-
istic-narcissistic needs.) The lack of plus e in the case of
N.T. shows that her emotional control is not so rigid that
it prevents her from actually experiencing her inability to
live out her exhibitionistic needs, thus the corresponding
frustration must be experienced as such, and the irritability
as indicated by the open e reaction might be a consequence
of this frustration. Other effects of repressing the open
and visible manifestations of the libido are increased indul-
gence in phantasy life, daydreaming, feeling of anxiety. The
fact that minus hy is strongly negative, while its “twin”
factor, the e is discharged — ^if recurring in a series — indi-
cates that repressed exhibitionistic drives are the most dan-
gerous latent needs in the personality, “dangerous” in that
they are the underlying driving force for actual neurotic
symptoms, just because they are unaccepted so that they
are forced to influence behavior in a round-about (neurotic)

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 3OI

way. Anxiety hysteria is one of the most frequent symp-
toms occurring with this P vectorial configuration. In the
case of N.T., such real neurotic anxiety symptoms are made
probable by her reaction in the C vector which also pointed
toward such symptoms.

N.T.’s reactions in the Sexual vector are also relatively
the most balanced: there is no disproportionate loading of
the two factors, and no strong discrepancy in their direc-
tion. She reacted with two positive choices to the h por-
traits, and with exactly ambivalent reactions to the s.

Interpretation: Despite all the neurotic symptoms in the
other three vectors, and despite the fact that this young
woman feels subjectively much more unhappy than her hus-
band (profile a) she has reached a much higher degree of
sexual maturity than he. Of course that is partially respon-
sible for her unhappiness, since she does experience hetero-
sexual needs, yet is unable to form object relationships
which would satisfy her sexual needs, (In the case of her
husband, the fact that he was shown to be practically
“asexual’* facilitated his getting satisfaction from his “sterile”
narcissistic activities.)

The plus h, plus-minus s configuration shows that N.T.
has basically identified herself with the passive and feminine
role in sexuality, although she is undecided in regard to
whether she should be completely passive and submissive
or not (plus-minus s). Yet this ambivalence does not per-
vade her whole sexuality, since the completely plus h
reaction shows her unambiguous need for physical tender-
ness. The coexistence of the plus h and plus part of the
s factor is also a guarantee against sadistic manifestations
of the plus s; the simultaneous acceptance of the two oppos-
ing needs exercising a certain self-regulatory and mutually
modifying effect on each other’s behavioral manifestations
(see chapter on the interpretation of the formal character-
istics of the test profile).

SZONDI TEST

302

The plus h reaction in conjunction with such a strong
plus m reaction is a typical “syndrome” of a person who
needs an enormous amount of personal love and tender-
ness. In this configuration — ^with plus h — the possibility
to sublimate successfully the oral need indicated by the
strong plus m through intellectual or artistic activity or

a b

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Fig. 10. Frequent but typically unhappy, yet dose, relationship between
two people, a. Rigid, narcissistic partner who is unwilling to **fuse.”
Self-sufficient. Also the picture of a compulsively sublimating person,
with outward success. Reproductive rather than creative, b. The
passive, “fusing” and unhappy partner. Not self-sufficient.

enjoyment is counterindicated, since the plus A is a sign of
the person’s inability to transform her primary need for
physical tenderness into more conceptualized forms of
abstract love. On the basis of the total configuration of
the test profile, we have to assume that the plus-minus s
in the case of this subject is connected with her crisis in
her object relationship, indicating a “clinging” to the object
of such intensity that it approaches “violent” clinging. It
indicates a sado-masochistic object-relationship — correlating

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 3O3

it with the ego reaction — ^referring to the “sadistic** gratifica-
tion she. obtains from her “masochistic** clinging to a hope-
lessly narcissistic partner. This is not an unusual mechanism
in “martyr** characters.

In conclusion we can say the following about the profile
of this 23 year old woman: she has a passive, strongly depend-
ent oral character, frustrated in the gratification of these

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Fig. 11. a. Exhibitionistic narcissism, h. Excessive need for affection;

clinging.

needs. Her ability for successful sublimation is limited,
and by no means sufficient to provide satisfaction for these
needs on a “symbolic** level. At the present stage of her
ego development she is bound to remain in essentially
frustrating situations, even though she realizes the unsatis-
factory character of her object relationships. She is apathetic
and unable to bring about changes actively. She is depressed
and anxious, her anxiety being manifested most probably
in definitely structured and objectified symptoms. Her

SZONDI TEST

304

basically healthy heterosexual drives form a good factor from
the point of view of prognosis. In interpersonal relation-
ship, she most probably is pleasant and eager to please, yet
frequently she is irritable, although never without exer-
cising control over the ways in which she discharges aggres-
sion. She is basically a sensitive person who does not want
to hurt others, and who feels lost if left alone. Most prob-

Fig. 12. Objectified Anxiety

ably she indulges in phantasies and daydreaming to the
extent that it impairs her efficiency in whatever work
she does.

Now that we have analyzed to this extent the test profiles
o£ this couple, a short abstract of their case histories will
be sufficient to round out the picture and to furnish objec-
tive, independent data which then can be compared with
the personality pictures gained on the basis of the test pro-
files. The coordination of the details of the case histories
to the corresponding test findings will be left to the reader.

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 305

N.T. and T.T. had been married for several years at
the time these profiles were obtained. The girl felt the
need to seek psychoanalytic help because of the following
complaints: she felt unhappy due to frequent anxiety
attacks, accompanied by attacks of vomiting and complete
loss of appetite. These attacks occurred regularly when-
ever she was in the company of certain people, usually her
mother. At the beginning, whenever she mentioned the
word “mother,” in whatever context, she started to weep.
Weeping was frequent with her anyway. Her worst attacks
of vomiting took place whenever her mother gave her a
present. Her mother was actually torturing her with eating,
always forcing her to eat, like a small child who is a feed-
ing problem. The mother was an aggressive, forceful per-
sonality, used to dominating everybody around her. She
was the main financial support and the head of the family,
the father being a weak, submissive person. N.T. felt
always neglected as a child, and actually she was neglected.
The worst period came with the birth of a younger brother,
when she was eight years old. At that time the financial
status of the family was more secure and the second child
actually got more attention and time from the mother, who
by then was not required to work so much in the office.
From then on, she consciously disliked her mother, although
she tried always to be “good” in order to please her mother.
N.T.’s feeding difficulties started early, but were intensified
in this period. In school, N.T. was well-liked by children
and teachers alike. She was and is a talkative, friendly
person. She decided to marry immediately after her gradu-
ation from the gymnasium (which in Europe, is the equiva-
lent of the high school, usually completed at the approxi-
mate age of eighteen years). She actually did marry soon.
Her anxiety and vomiting attacks started during the honey-
moon. She was the partner who forced the marriage, and
immediately after the wedding felt guilty about it. At

S 20 NDI TEST

306

that time, she also developed a habit of ‘"grimacing” which
was almost like a facial tic, and resembled a sucking move-
ment with her lips. Originally she had “dreamed” about
a stage career (she had some real talent for acting), which
she abandoned before a start to support her husband, who
was at the time of their marriage a university student of
history. She was proud of the intellectual success of her
husband, but sexually quite dissatisfied. Her psychologic
insight into her husband’s personality was fairly good. She
knew that spontaneously he would never have married her,
and that he had practically no sincere sexual needs. He
lived only to be the best student, appreciated by ail his
professors, and he was actually able to reach this primary
goal of his. He had no real interest in anything but his
immediate studies, which were narrowly limited to a neg-
lected period of medieval history. He “liked” his wife
insofar as he was able to like anybody. His studies took
practically the twenty-four hours of the day, including week
ends. There was no originality in his work, but he was
extremely conscientious and ambitious. Most of his work
consisted in reading. After he completed his work at the
university, he began to teach himself, getting satisfaction
to an extreme degree from this activity. There was still
no more time left for his married life, because of his prepa-
rations for his classes. He carefully selected only those
“friends” who duly admired him, and he expected to be
admired for his intellect by his wife as well. Even in
this respect he was gratified, because she did admire his
intellect, although she realized the shortcomings of the
rest of his personality. Yet N.T. was unable to leave this man
who gave her no gratification of any sort, except, probably,
that of being proud of his success. She wept, and com-
plained, and analyzed the reasons for her frustrations in
detail, but she never made a move to rid herself of this
situation. Her reasoning was characteristically that “who

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 307

knows that another husband would be better/’ Although
extremely pretty, she had no self-confidence in regard to
attracting men. Another reason for not wanting a divorce
was her concern about her mother’s reaction to her daugh-
ter’s divorce. She continued daydreaming about ‘‘once
getting on the stage,” but did nothing about it, and kept
her secretarial job for years, although she admitted that
she hates the work. She was not an efficient worker, often
becoming confused through daydreaming. Since neither
of these subjects was my patient in analysis (the husband,
of course, never thought of analysis) and because I left
the country, I was unable to follow up the later develop-
ment and changes which must have taken place in this girl
during analysis.

The factorial correlations in Figures lo to 12 can be
abstracted from the profiles in Figures ga, b as representing
generally valid and rather frequently occurring syndromes.

Figures 13a and b, two profiles of a nineteen year old boy,
are presented despite the fact that I know practically nothing
about him as an individual; I know only that the profiles
were taken in a state prison in Hungary, to which G.Y. was
sentenced for four years for a case of attempted murder,
and because of his part in arson against a synagogue in com-
pany with a gang of boys of similar age.

Unfortunately, profiles of severe criminals are not usually
available until after commission of the crime, when the
profiles are taken during custody, thus possibly introducing
a modifying factor the effect of which cannot be separated
from that of the underlying personality pattern. Yet the
“typical” reactions of criminals in jail are meaningful in
terms of our theory of interpretation of the various factorial
positions, so that we assume that even though possibly
somewhat modified through the effects of confinement, these
test profiles may be regarded as representing the reaction
pattern of antisocial individuals.

SZONDI TEST

308

In the two profiles of G.Y., we see the following char-
acteristics: most loaded factor is the all six pictures of
sadists in the second profile having been chosen as five liked,
one disliked.

Intepr elation: Greatest tension lies in the area of physical
activity, which in this case of extreme loadedness in an adult,
must be interpreted as physical aggression ready to be dis-

a h

Fig. 13. a, b. G. Y., 19 year old male, sentenced for attempted murder.

charged. There is a need to manipulate aggressively environ-
mental objects. No power of abstraction. No intellectual
interest. Impulsive character. Childish reactions.

Open reactions: h (once), hy (twice), d (once).

Interpretation: Open in conjunction with plus s, is
a typically “bad” constellation. It indicates dissociation in
the two main component factors of sexuality, whereby each
of the two tendencies is likely to appear in pathologic
form of behavior, since the mutually “mitigating” eiffect
of the two opposing factors is lacking. (The pathologic

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 3O9

efEect in a case of this type of dissociation of the two factors
in the sexual vector is more apparent in behavior when
one of the factors is open while the other is in plus posi-
tion, than it is when the factor which is loaded is in the
minus position next to the open reaction. Neurotic, hidden
pathologic manifestations can be expected in this latter case,
and not antisocial pathology, since a minus reaction in
either the h or the s /actor implies sublimation too strong
to allow antisocial behavior.) In the present case, in which
open h appears with plus s, one can assume that childish
sexuality, perhaps actual homosexuality, and sadism are both
pathologically apparent features of the behavior. This is
a usual S vectorial picture in sexual perverts and criminals
(the two not being mutually exclusive).

The open hy reaction by itself can be interpreted only
as lack of control in regard to exhibiting emotions. By
itself it has no particular socially negative or positive sig-
nificance; however, in conjunction with this poorly inte-
grated and extremely sadistic sexuality, one can definitely
attribute a socially negative significance to the lack of emo-
tional control as indicated by the open hy. Something is
always '‘acted out” in individuals with open hy, with this
strong plus s (and as we will see with the other socially
unfavorable factorial constellations) it means that a criminal
role has been acted out. It should be remembered that
the percentual frequency of the open hy among the various
pathologic groups is the highest in the group comprising
antisocial individuals. The open d reaction indicates a
lack of concern about the specificity of objects in the environ-
ment. There is no strong attachment to any object; what-
ever is closest and easiest to obtain is taken. Its significance
in terms of social behavior can, again, not be interpreted
except in relation to the m. Open d, with minus m, is
socially the least favorable constellation of all C vectorial
configurations. These are the subjects who have the most

SZONDI TEST

310

negativistic attitude toward the world. There is no attempt
at socially positive adjustment, not even in the sense of
“neurotic” adjustment. In behavior there is a socially
desperate attitude of indifference and aggression against the
frustrating environment. This not unfrequently takes the
form of destructive activities in order to “secure revenge”
and evoke some “pleasure” from the frustrating environ-
ment. Highest in frequency among the pathologic groups,
this configuration is found again in criminals, and next in
manic psychotics.

Changing factors are the h, the e, and the d. None of
these changes is great — ^from one to two squares only (coun-
terindication against psychosis). The tension in the h factor
shows parallel increase with the tension in the s factor,
resulting still in the same degree of discrepancy in their
relative loadedness as was seen in the first profile. The
interpretation is similar, except that a slightly more bal-
anced sexual picture occurs in the second profile. Never-
theless, the subject is a strongly sadistic, outgoing, non-
intellectual person. He has no ability to sublimate. (This
statement is home out also by the rest of the factors, pri-
marily in the Sch vector.)

The change in the e factor is more interesting. Although
only one additional picture has been chosen as liked, still
the balance within the e factor has changed considerably
from 2 minus and 1 plus (twice as many minus choices), to
ambiequal position. Minus e is the typical reaction of
individuals with poor control over aggressive emotions, and
this is particularly true if minus e appears with open hy,
which configuration represents the poorest emotional con-
trol conceivable. Yet on the second profile there is some
indication of the presence of a controlling agent (superego)
which, although in a conflict situation, nevertheless indi-
cates a lack of unconcerned spontaneity as far as open

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 3 1 1

behavior is concerned. It is an indicator for the appear-
ance of some guilt-feelings. (This, for instance, seems to
me a possible “jair’-induced reaction.) It is interesting
to note that the plus e component increases parallel to the
extreme increase in the plus s tension, which might be in
dynamically causal relationship, the guilt-feeling being the
consequence (the increasing inner tension in regard to
physical aggressiveness).

The change in the d factor shows a draining of the
plus d. Plus dy plus s is the typical picture of the anal-
sadistic individual: plus d indicates the need to accumulate
and master concrete objects, and plus s indicates that this
need is carried out in a ruthless way. If minus m is also
present, there can be practically no doubt about this socially
negative implication of plus d, plus s. The alternation of
plus with open d points toward the person’s slightly chang-
ing attitude toward the value character of the environment
in general. Plus d, in this constellation, indicates that
objects are still valued; it is worthwhile to hoard them and
to fight for them sadistically; while open d indicates an even
more cynical, not-caring attitude, in which destruction for
the sake of revenge becomes more important than any
material gain from an antisocial activity. (Setting a temple
afire fits in well with the second constellation, while robbery
is more common with plus d.)

The ego picture is one hundred per cent stable within the
two profiles, giving both times the childish “drill” picture of
minus k with minus p, the minus p being in both cases the
more loaded.

Interpretation: The forced control character of this ego
configuration has been discussed in the corresponding sec-
tion in the chapter on ego development. It also has been
pointed out that although most of the time this ego con-
stellation accompanies disciplined behavior, it represents the

SZONDI TEST

312

socially least reliable way of arriving at controlled behavior,
since it implies the lack of recognition of any of the latent
destructive forces operating in the deep-repressed layers of
the personality. “Breaking-through of the repressed” in an
unpredictable way is most common in this Sch configuration,
particularly if the p factor is the more loaded, and undoubt-
edly if it is associated with an otherwise as socially negative
a pattern as this test profile (plus s, minus e, open hy, plus
or open d, minus m). Theoretically, I would assume that
during the time the criminal act is performed, there is a
draining of the minus k; however, I have no supporting
experimental data of “criminals in action.”

Summary: The two test profiles of this 19 year old boy
show a sexually immature, anal-sadistic personality. There
is no possibility for sublimation in any of the possible chan-
nels represented by the eight factors. He is disappointed
in the world and turns against it. His emotional control
is seriously deficient, there is a tremendous amount of motor
excitability without adequate control. His ego is childish,
in a “nebulous” state in the sense of his indifference to his
own psychologic processes. His interest is strictly and
aggressively concrete. He is capable of some sort of dis-
ciplined behavior however motivated wholly (or almost
wholly) by the realization of external punishing agents. As
long as external punishment for antisocial behavior seems
imminent, he can restrict himself; however, there is no
inner control. He gives the picture of the child who is
“good” only as long as the parent or the teacher sees him.
In the case of the adult, the parent or teacher is represented
by the police. However, if this constellation is obtained
by adolescents or adults, it implies typically antisocial
tendencies.

Figures 14-16, typical syndromes, can be pointed out on
the basis of these profiles:

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS

313

+ 6
+5
+4
+ 3
+2
+1
0

-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6

Fig. 14. Unmodified Anal-Sadistic Tendency

Fig. 15. Murderous impulses (not necessarily carried out in reality).

SZONDI TEST

3H

These two profiles of another boy, approximately the same
age as the adolescent discussed above, have been chosen for
presentation because, in most respects, the factors constitute
the constellation opposite to those of the two profiles of
G.Y. Accordingly, the two subjects of the same age and
sex show opposite types of personality, although the adjective
aggressive, if taken out of context, could characterize both

+6
+5
+4
+3
+2
4-1
0

-2
-3
-4
~5
-6

Fig. i6. Nonsublimating “average'' person. Interest is exclusively in
concrete, tangible environment. Physically active but not necessarily

aggressive.

of them. However, while in the case of G.Y. this meant
actual physically sadistic impulses, as well as behavior mani-
festations, in the case of T.R. the aggression is a purely
“intellectual” agression, having no other manifestation
than an extreme wish to “know” and to achieve success in
his studies as a medical student. I could have chosen pro-
files more completely contradictory to those of G.Y., profiles
in which actually every single factor shows diametrically
the opposite position to those of G.Y., so that the personality

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SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 315

of the two subjects would have been more nearly one hun-
dred per cent opposing. Yet I rather chose the case of
T.R. just because he has in some ways also an “aggressive*'
personality, giving us the opportunity to demonstrate the
way in which the same constellation in a single factor can
have completely different implications for behavior in an
otherwise completely different test pattern.

a

b

Fig. 17. G, b, T. R., 20 Year Old Medical Student

The first difference we can notice in the two pairs of
profiles is that in the case of T.R. there is no factor loaded
with more than four choices, and even when there are four,
one of them has the position as the “counterbalancing one”
square, opposite to the direction of the other three choices
in the same factor. (G.Y. chose all six pictures in the s,
with five in the plus direction.) This alone is an indica-
tion of the fact that T.R.*s profiles correspond to a rather
well-balanced type of personality.

The next structural difference we can see is that T.R.

SZONDI TEST

316

gives three ambiequal reactions in the two profiles, while
G.Y. gave none. Without even considering in which factors
these ambiequal reactions are found, we can say that they
are indication of more self-control and more awareness
of psychologic processes than G.Y. showed.

The third general comparative remark can be that in a
quick overview we see that T.R.’s minus reactions are dis-
tributed mostly in the factors in which G.Y. gave most of
his plus reactions and versus, which immediately indicates
a contradictory kind of organization of the eight “drives’*
represented in the Szondi test.

The main vectors in the present two test profiles are
loaded rather evenly, with the exception of the Paroxysmal
vector, which is either nearly or completely drained. This
means that the problem of emotional control is of least
concern for this subject. His tension areas are his sexuality,
his ego, and his relationship with objects of the environ-
ment, Since one of the advisable ways to begin inter-
pretation is to begin with the vector which stands out most
from the rest of the test pattern (although there is no rigid
rule governing this: the point at which to start the inter-
pretation depends very much on the specific characteristics
of the profile), we can start with the P vector in this case.

The lack of emotional control is obvious in both profiles.
Minus open hy has been described in connection with
the first profile of G.Y., who gave — ^interestingly enough —
exactly the same configuration. We said that this suggested
the poorest emotional control, indicating irritability, readi-
ness to discharge aggression, and some sort of exhibitionistic
outlet. However, the meaninglessness of attaching schemes
of interpretation to positions per se is clearly illustrated in
this case. Can we expect that this boy will be ready to
discharge aggression and display exhibitionistic character-
istics in a manner similar to G.Y.’s? A glance at the other
six factors will give us clearly the answer “no.” It is true

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 317

that he must have some sort of an exhibitionistic outlet,
and that some sort of aggression must break through easily;
however, the minus h, minus s, plus plus p, and the
presence of minus and plus m part reactions, is a guar-
antee that whatever this boy does is strictly within socially
acceptable limits; even more, the rest of the pattern indi-
cates that he is a typically idealistic, sublimating individual.
Thus, within this context, minus open hy has more the
meaning of emotional spontaneity; actually there is no
reason for him to invest much psychic energy in controlling
emotional manifestations, since at the outset his drives
appear within his psychologic organization in socially sub-
limated form. The basic sublimation of the primary drives
and their integration within the frame of the ego are the
psychologic functions utilizing most of this boy's psychic
energy. There is no indication of forced, constrictive-
control in any of the factors (primarily, I refer here to
the lack of minus k). The modification (or channelization)
of the basic drives takes place at a more basic level of organi-
zation. Thus, the lack of emotional control in this young
man is psychologically rather a ‘‘good" sign, since he needs
some area in which he can release tension resulting from
the otherwise too strenuous psychologic task he takes on
himself in regard to sublimation and integration of all
psychologically perceived drives within the coherent system
of the ego — ^all this without resorting to “organizing"
through repression (plus k with plus p). Open e, open hy,
in this case, means that the emotions are lived out without
difficulty, although on a sublimated level. He is likely to
react to ordinary experiences in an emotional way, which
again in a profile indicating so much intellectualization,
might be considered as favorable at least in the sense of
indicating that despite the strong drives for intellectual sub-
limation, this boy is a spontaneous, emotional being. It
indicates a freely expressive and not rigid behavior. Sub-

SZONDI TEST

318

jectively he might feel the disadvantages of this lack of
emotional control. He might be easily irritable and emo-
tions might find their way into his thinking processes even
on occasions when they have a disturbing effect on intel-
lectual concentration.

Now that we have analyzed the one outstanding “not-
fitting” vector, we can continue by interpreting the vectors
as they appear in succession on the profile, since the rest
of the test pattern reveals a usual correlation among the
factors and the vectors; yielding in every respect the “typicar'
picture of the intellectually sublimating person. Whatever
gives the uniquely individual character or coloring of a
personality has to be looked for always in the correlations
which are not usual, in the vector which is the least fitting
within the general pattern of the profile. In the present
case, we found this most individual coloring in the fact
that this boy is spontaneous and might have difficulties in
intellectual concentration, despite all his conscious drives
toward sublimation and integrated behavior.

The Sexual vector shows the greatest fluctuation within
the whole profile, the minus h, minus s configuration chang-
ing into a minus open s, although it was just the s \vhich
was more strongly minus than the h in the first profile. This
can be taken as an indication that handling aggression is
problematic for this boy. He vacillates between a more
passive and a more openly aggressive behavior. Yet even
in the case of acceptance of an “aggressive” role (the second
profile with open s) one can be sure that “aggression” in
this case means active and energetic sublimation, fighting
for his ideas, and not aggression in an antisocial form.
Minus h with open s is a typical configuration for what one
could call “masculine” sublimation, meaning thereby that
subjects with this reaction in the sexual vector are likely
to live out their “need for masculinity” in a desexualized
form of professional work of an active sort (as against the

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 3 IQ

passive “receptive** type of sublimation which goes more
with minus h and minus s). The interesting aspect of this
minus h, open s configuration is that by indicating both
desexualization and living out masculine tendencies in a
sublimated form it has slightly opposing meaning depend-
ing on the sex of the subject. It is given by masculine
women who sublimate their masculinity in professional
work, while in the case of men, it means rather the fact
that the subject is avoiding complete identification with the
masculine component of sexuality, even though these sub-
jects cannot be described as “feminine** in their behavior.
For some reason they seem to have conflicts about “mas-
culine** aggression on the primarily sexual level, but are
well able to sublimate their doubtlessly existing need for
such behavior in professional work, in which then they
are usually successful. This “dual** and conflicting behavior
is indicated by the fact that this is a “dissociated** sexual
picture, showing that the two partial and opposing com-
ponents of sexuality have been treated very differently,
which, as we know, is always the sign of a poor amalgama-
tion of the basic sex drives, expected to show some fusion
in sexually well-functioning individuals. In the case of
one of the factors being loaded, the other open, both com-
ponent drives of sexuality seem to be operating strongly
in the personality; however, they exert their effects from
different layers of the personality.

In the case of the present S vectorial constellation, on the
second profile of T.R., the configuration indicates that the
feminine, tender part of sexuality is strongly experienced
as such (strongly, because of its dissociated appearance from
the s factor), yet he more or less consciously represses it
from open manifestation and overemphasizes his masculine
aggression, which, on the other hand, is hindered from
healthy sexual manifestation due to its lack of fusion with
the h, thus being channelized into other nonsexual forms

SZONDI TEST

320

of behavior. The presence of minus h guarantees that even
in case of overemphasizing this masculine aggression, it will
have no antisocial effects. The correctness of this inter-
pretation in the present case is borne out by the fact that
open s appears in the second test after a negative s in the
first; thus the conflict between masculine and feminine
identification is indicated in two independent ways: once
within one profile by the disproportionate loading of the
two “twin” factors, and then by the change taking place
in the s factor from the first to the second testing. I have
analyzed this constellation to this extent because I wanted
to point out in a concrete case tlie difference, as far as
behavior is concerned, in the two subjects in whom we
found dissociation in the Sexual vector, yet dissociation in
different directions, and correspondingly, with diametrically
opposite behavioral consequences, even though both boys
were unbalanced in their sexuality.

The Ego vector, on the other hand, is well balanced in
both profiles, particularly in the second, where the “counter-
balancing one” squares appear under the plus k as well as
tmder the plus p factor. The fact that the k factor, without
showing any changes in direction, does increase with two
choices (one more in plus and appearance of one in the
minus on the second profile) is a further indication that
the second profile corresponds to a state of better inte-
gration within the ego than was shown in the first. It is
of interest to note that this better state of ego integration
occurs when the minus s in the sexual factor disappears.
It might indicate that the drive for sublimated identification
with the masculine role can be better integrated within
the ego, than can his acceptance of his tendency toward
^‘feminine” passivity (minus s). These types of changes are
characteristic for the so-called “normal” or “healthy” indi-
viduals, who by no means are expected to be beings without
conflicts and without fluctuations within the state of tension

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 321

in their various drives; yet they are expected not to show
extreme changes from one testing to the other which on
the profiles would be indicated by the complete “mirror”
changes of the factorial as well as vectorial constellations
(see chapter on classification of changes).

The ego pictures in both profiles of T.R. indicate that
this boy wants to accept himself the way he is; he intends
to be “emotional” (plus as well as “intellectual” (plus k);
he wants to cathect objects of the environment, yet keep
up his self-sufficient narcissistic integrity. This, as has been
said in discussing the plus plus p configuration, results
by necessity in an extremely tense situation within the ego,
which by the person might be experienced as a critical
situation which cannot be kept up for long periods of time
because of the psychologic contradictions inherent in simul-
taneous and complete identification with these two opposing
ego drives, yet which to a high degree precludes any seri-
ously pathologic symptoms within the ego just because of
the mutually mitigating effect of these two drives, and
because the whole process and conflict is conscious to the
person to such a great extent that most of the pathologic
effect of the drives becomes absorbed.

The one possible pathologic implication of this tense
ego constellation, that of preschizophrenia, can be excluded
because the change in the ego vector shows that this boy,
instead of being likely to “break down,” shows rather a
potentiality for increasing the effect of the organizational
power (increasing his k) within the ego, and increasing
it in the most desirable way, by showing at least a slight
tendency toward dividing his attitude, not forcing himself
so much to carry out the most difficult task of accepting
and organizing every emotional content on the conscious
level. The second profile indicates an incipient willing-
ness to withdraw some of his psychic energy from constant
introspection, or in other words, to be slightly less con-

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322

cemed with the state of his own ego, thus having more
energy at his disposal to be invested in more concretely
realistic aspects of the world. In the case of the plus k,
plus p configuration in the Sch vector, the lack or presence
of the counterbalancing one squares under each factor, seem
to make a great deal of difference in respect to the realistic
efficiency of the person. Although sublimation is indi-
cated in every variation of this specific ego picture, yet
without the subject’s ability to leave some of his ego within
the sphere of the unconscious (unconscious as indicated by
the presence of minus reactions in the Sch vector) the drive
toward sublimation is often exhausted before it could have
manifested itself in any constructively tangible products of
sublimation. In the case of our present subject, we can
assume that he is on the way to change from an inflated
adolescent in the height of intellectual and emotional
‘‘Sturm und Drang” period, into a really productive, sub-
limating adult.

The configurations and the changes taking place in the
Contact vector support this interpretation of the subject’s
being in a “transition” period of emotional and social
adjustment. Plus-minus d, plus-minus m on the first profile
changes into minus d, plus-minus m in the second profile.
The change from a totally ambivalent attitude in regard
to evaluating the objects of the environment, toward a
slightly less ambivalent attitude, takes place simultaneously
with the change toward a state of better organization within
the ego. The configuration within the C vector on the
first profile indicates an ambivalence — or vacillation — in
regard to whether or not environmental objects should be
valued highly, and sought for actively, or whether or not
there should be attempts to gain gratifications on a com-
pletely abstract, and in this sense, unrealistic level. As we
have mentioned in our discussion of this configuration of
the d and m factors, this total ambivalence in the C vector
is usually not experienced by the subject as a hopeless con-

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 3^3

flict, but the opposing attitudes toward the objects and
values of the world manifest themselves rather in the suc-
cession of small time units, resulting in an inconsistent
behavior. On the second profile we find a more definite
stand-point in regard to evaluating the importance of mate-
rial objects of the world. On the second profile, the C vec-
torial configuration approaches the pattern of minus d,
plus indicating a depreciation of the materialistic values,
with increasing importance of the idealistic, nontangible
values. As has been said in the general section about this
configuration as well as in discussion of our first case (T.T.),
this constellation usually indicates a good and optimistic
attitude toward the environment, with gratifications obtained
on a sublimated level. However, even though this con-
figuration is implicit in the second profile of T.R., the
presence of the minus part of the m factor is an indication
that this boy experiences frustration in regard to his need
to cling to some person for the sake of obtaining love and
support. In discussion of the meaning of the plus-minus
m position, it has been mentioned that this m factorial con-
stellation, if recurring within a series bearing otherwise
favorable signs for sublimation, is usually caused by the
basic bisexual characteristics of the subject's sexual con-
stitution, the conflict in the m factor indicating that neither
clinging to a person of the opposite sex or to one of the
same sex is completely satisfactory. We might further
assume that the excessive drive toward sublimation and
the extreme cathexis of the own ego-processes is also in
some way in causal connection with this basic conflict of
bisexual organization. The change taking place within
the sexual vector and the configuration of the h and s factors
in the second profile support this hypothesis.

In conclusion we can say that these two profiles reflect
an intensively sublimating and socialized individual. Intel-
lectual or artistic professions are practically certain in the

$2ondi test

3H

event of such profiles. T.R.’s personality reflects an
extremely differentiated and complex level of organization.
He seems to be in a transition period from a more con-
flicting and adolescent-like stage towards a better organized
and less ambivalent stage of productive adulthood. Basic
conflicts are indicated in the area of sexuality, the “feminine”
and “masculine” components of sexuality lacking amalgama-
tion, thus being experienced as mutually incompatible forces
rather than different aspects of the same basic drive. More
specifically, this boy shows inconsistency in regard to pas-
sive, recipient, or active manipulative behavior. He is able
to identify and carry out the role corresponding to the
latter, however, only after having deflected sexual libido
from the primarily sexual goal; in other words, through
sublimation. Despite being successful in this respect, he
experiences frustration in regard to his object relationships,
which, however, does not cause serious symptoms because
of his ability to derive gratifications of a sublimated nature.

The following facts of the personal history of this boy
should be mentioned in order to furnish comparative find-
ings to our test interpretation. At the time the test was
taken he was an enthusiastic and most successful medical
student. Ever since his childhood, he was considered to
be quite brilliant intellectually, without, however, being an
overly “good” child. Studying and getting the best grades
came easily to him, without his having to concentrate hard
on his schoolwork. He was aware of this ability, and
expressed frequently his fears that people generally over-
estimated him, and he felt that sooner or later he would
have to disappoint those (primarily his parents) who
expected him to develop into somebody “exceptional” in
his later life, since he did not feel the strength to exert
really hard work requiring long-range concentrated efforts.
He was afraid that he would never be able to narrow his
interests sufficiently to be really successful in one specific

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 325

field. His range of interest and actual knowledge varied
widely, from mathematics and physics to languages, litera-
ture, history, psychology, and a number of activities
including bicycling, hiking, dancing, going to parties, etc.
Despite his apparent '‘success'’ in social gatherings, this was
a field in which he felt insecure. He was afraid that girls
would not like him unless he went out of his way to act
really “masculine." He forced himself to make numerous
dates and to do everything boys of his age were supposed
to do, however without enjoyment. He changed his girl
friends frequently because — ^in his own words — ^he became
“bored" in going out with the same girl for any length
of time. His behavior was usually gay and happy, yet he
felt basically lonesome in the company of boys and girls
of his own age. On the other hand, he was able to derive
intensive satisfaction from reading, writing, studying, or
working on a specific theoretical problem. His parents
were both intellectual professional people, his father a
chemist, his mother a pediatrician, which he later became
himself. Both his parents loved him, their only child, but
he was aware that their marriage was unhappy — or no mar-
riage beyond formality — ^and that without consideration of
him both parents would have been divorced. His attitude
toward his parents was that of love and understanding,
almost frighteningly mature even at early puberty when
he realized the complete independence of the lives of his
father and mother. He did not condemn either of them,
but consciously tried to make them happy. His anxieties
had roots in his feelings that he might disappoint them.
His parents treated him as an adult at a very early age,
being unusually sincere with themselves as well as with
each other and with the child. Consequently the child
identified himself with both of them, this double identifica-
tion serving possibly as a psychologic basis for his later
conflicts about being feminine or masculine in behavior.

SZONDI TEST

326

The identification was made even more complex by the
fact that his mother was strongly “masculine” and his
father strongly “feminine” in personality. Given this home
background, it would be hard to imagine anybody develop-
ing a healthier sexual pattern than this boy did. At the
time the profiles were taken, he was considering the pos-
sibility of going into psychoanalysis, with the probable view
of becoming a psychoanalyst himself; however, he felt that
for a while he would wait and try to “bring order” within
himself in which task I think he succeeded very well. When
he left town I did not see him for years until recently I met
him once more. He had become a practicing pediatrician,
married, the father of a child, and gave every indication of
one who was rather satisfied with his life. He spontaneously
talked about the times of his greatest emotional and intel-
lectual upheaval (when the tests were administered) and
stated that, although conflicts still exist, he felt reasonably
happy, enjoyed his work and his family. Undoubtedly there
was some bitterness in talking about himself as a “regular”
practitioner who, in supporting a family, had little time for
research. I wondered about the changes in his ego vector,
but had no opportunity to administer the test.

On the basis of this case, we can point out the factorial
correlations in Figure 18 as typical.

Finally the test-series of B.I., a severely confused schizo-
phrenic patient of a state hospital, is presented primarily
as an example of one of the most pathologic types of change,
such types of change which can never be expected to occur
either in so-called “normal” or neurotic subjects. It will
be of interest to compare the structural features of this
series with those of F.T. whose series of ten profiles has
been presented in Fig. 5, Chapter VI, in which we dis-
cussed the case from the point of view of formalized analysis,
on the basis of purely quantitative computations and the

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 327

diagnostic tables of drive formulas presented in the appendix
of Szondi’s Experimentelle Triebdiagnostik,

First let us inspect the finding reached on the basis of
quantitative scoring methods, in the present series of B.I.
The ratio of all his open reactions over all his plus-minus
reactions corresponds to the value of 2.2. This is approxi-

Fig. 18. Typical picture of sublimating individual who intends to face
and intellectualize his emotions without stifling them (opposite to

figure 16).

mately twice the value obtained in the case of F.T, (1.08).
On the basis of this ratio we can say about B.I. only that
he may be expected to be much less self-controlled and
considerably more prone to “act out” in his behavior than
F.T. The type of his “acting out,” even with respect to
whether it is within the range of normal spontaneous or
psychotic symptoms, cannot be decided on the basis of this
one ratio.

Furthermore, the scoring sheet indicates that B.I. belongs
in the category, or “drive-class,” of Cm-, which means that

328

SZONDI TEST

Name: jB.

I>IA&N05i5: schizophrenia
32 W:

Szondi-Tesf

Blati mii zehn Triebprofilen

S 0 I 61 3 2 3.2 7 eltslin 8 3

^ ± U 6 ) 6 > 2 I 2 I teMsM

T.8P.6. 5 ja 3 ^ 414 Trlebkla»e:

Iflemgilssts-.?. p=.J. soh-Q c=.?.|

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Copyright 1947 by Vorfag Hans Huber, Bern

8 3 10

4. Triebkiasse: C

Fig. 19 . B. I., A Schizophrenic Patient.

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 3^9

it is the Contact Vector in which the two twin factors are
handled the most disproportionately, the d factor giving
symptomatic reactions in eight out of nine profiles (seven
open and one plus-minus), while the m factor is in minus
position throughout the nine profiles. Accordingly, we
would expect that the most critical need in this man is
the frustrated need of oral clinging. Whatever open symp-
toms we might find in him we assume most are basically
motivated unconsciously, first by this, frustrated need to
cling to somebody passively for love and support, and second
by his drive towards aggressive manipulation of his environ-
ment (s being the other factor without any symptomatic
reaction, and appearing eight times out of nine in plus
position).

Turning to the appendix of Szondi's Exp er intent elle
Triebdiagnostik, we consult Psychodiagnostic Table XVIII,
which gives us the formulas for the “drive-class*’ Cm-. In
this table the one formula which is most similar to (but
not identical with) the constellation of the factors in our
present “formula,” is indicated as being most characteristic
for manic patients. As will be seen from the case history,
our patient does have a great number of symptoms which
are of “manic” character. Yet, his hospital diagnosis was
that of schizophrenia, with mixed symptoms of hebephrenic
and excited catatonic features. The reason that in this
case the “drive-formula” has not really indicated the schizo-
phrenic disturbance is that the most characteristic test
symptom of schizophrenia, the mirror-like reversal of factors
from one testing to the next, does not show up as a “symp-
tomatic reaction” in this type of tabulation, since sudden
changes from the plus to the minus reaction are not tabu-
lated as symptomatic — as are only the open and plus-minus
reactions. This does not mean, of course, that this type
tabulation of series should not be done; it does remind
us, however, of the importance of interpreting always the

SZONDI TEST

330

qualitative changes taking place in the factors and vectors,
as indicated on the graphic profiles (or one can transpose
the graphic squares into numbers, in which case it might
be easier to obtain a quick overview of the factorial changes
within a long series without losing the detailed qualita-
tive data).

The qualitative approach to interpretation of the present
series yields the following findings:

First, the general incoherence of the configuration of
the total series is obvious.

a. One is struck immediately by the number of loaded
plus or minus reactions in various factors which have no
counter-balancing one square in the opposite direction.

b. The first profile shows an almost complete dissocia-
tion of the respective twin-factors in each vector. This
should be mentioned because the first profiles in any series
seem to have a specific significance from the point of view
of diagnosing behavior.

c. Disproportionate loading of the vectors is apparent
throughout the series, particularly in profiles V and VIII.
In profile V it should be noted that the open factors are
actually one hundred per cent open, which is practically
never obtained (in two factors of the same profile) in
nonpsychotics.

d. Next, one should observe the complete “mirror”-
changes taking place from one testing to the other (the tests
having been administered daily). Most frequent are these
changes in the Sch vector. From profile I to II the minus k
with plus p changes into plus k with minus p. From
profile V to VI, minus k with open p changes to open k
with minus p. From profile VIII to IX, open k with plus-
minus p changes into plus-minus k with open p. As we
have pointed out before, changes are expected in the series
of any subject, and even in cases of relatively well-function-
ing individuals we might get a complete turning over of

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 331

a vectorial configuration within the course of a whole
series. Yet in the case of “normals,” this turning over is
a gradual process, occurring through a number of “tran-
sitory” steps, and not into such complete mirror reflections
of the previous vectorial picture, from one day to the next.

This degree of inspection of the present test series is
enough for the formulation of the following statements:
This subject is not well-functioning, and has pathologic
symptoms which are more serious than any form of neurosis.
He has a basically disbalanced personality, without any
steady control mechanisms. His ego is seriously disinte-
grated (not simply regressed) and he has no consistent atti-
tude in regard to the use of any particular ego mechanism.
States of complete adualistic fusion into his environment
alternate with pictures of rigid compulsiveness, giving the
most narcissistic reaction of emotional detachment, followed
by reaction indicating the most acute need to fuse into
and love persons in his environment. Consequently his
behavior must be seriously erratic and unpredictable.

The “mirror-changes” in the Sch vector indicate the
presence of a schizophrenic process; however, in order to
evaluate the relative importance of the undoubtedly exist-
ing process in the framework of the total personality pattern,
we have to inspect the occurrences taking place in the other
vectors. There is only one great change in the Sexual vector,
taking place from profile I to II, from plus h with minus 5,
to plus-minus h with strongly (five plus) plus s. The
Paroxysmal vector shows considerable changes in each suc-
cessive profile. Yet, a complete vectorial “mirror”-change
is seen only once, from profile VII to VIII, plus e with
minus hy changing into minus e with plus hy. There is
such a complete “mirror”-change in the P vector also,
between the configurations of profile II and IV, changing
from minus e with open hy into open e with minus hy.
However, profile III shows the transitory step of minus e

SZONDI TEST

332

with minus hy^ thereby diminishing some of the pathologic
significance of this change.

Thus, we can conclude that the pathologic significance
of the changes within the Sch vector are greater than those
of the P vector, although changes in the latter are undoubt-
edly indicative of the existence of pathologic paroxysmal
symptoms.

There are relatively few changes in the Contact vector.
The m factor is in minus position all through the nine
profiles, the d factor is seven times open, once minus, and
once plus-minus. On the basis of our general principles
for interpretation of a series of profiles, we have to conclude
that an actual pathologic process is not taking place within
this area; however, we must look for an underlying moti-
vational factor corresponding to the steady minus m. Fur-
thermore, underlying factors are represented in the relatively
stable plus h and plus 5.

Thus we must conclude that this man shows most acute
symptoms within the Schizophrenic vector. In the frame-
work of such a completely disorganized profile, in which
is shown no possibility for sublimation (because ail factors
constantly change with the exception of plus hy plus Sy
open dy and minus m)y and in which are indicated the worst
possible relationship to objects of his environment (plus Sy
open dy minus m)y the most probable diagnosis is actual
schizophrenic psychosis. Besides schizophrenic symptoms
there must be some serious paroxysmal type of disorder,
yet real epilepsy can be excluded on the following basis:
in case of grand-mal seizures, one would expect occasional
draining of the s factor. The ego picture of epileptics is
expected to be primitive, reflecting a poorly structured
infantile ego, yet not showing those types of “mirror”-changes
which imply that the core of the process takes place within
the ego functions and not through the motor system proper
(as in the case of grand-mals).

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 333

On the basis of the steady minus m and the loaded plus
one also must think of antisocial behavior. Actually, there
are no signs which would contradict the hypothesis that
this man has serious antisocial tendencies; however, the
general pattern of changes indicates that this can not be
his main diagnosis. Criminal behavior alone could not
account for the changes in either the Sch or the P vectors.
Yet the criminal syndrome of plus minus minus and
minus m is clearly there in profiles II and III. Again it
should be remembered that the first profile in a series has
specific importance for manifest behavior, and B.I. gives
minus s and plus e in his first profile.

Thus, despite the obvious indications for paroxysmal and
antisocial behavior, the most pathologic area remains that
corresponding to the patient’s ego; in other words, the schizo-
phrenic process seems to be acutely the most characteristic
of his pathologic behavior. The next step is decision of
the form of schizophrenia. The paranoid form (as the most
characteristic feature) is contraindicated by the great incon-
sistency of the k factor. Systematized forms of paranoid
delusions could not persist with this much inconsistency
within the ego processes. The lack of minus s is another
counterindication against systematized paranoic symptoms.
The great changes in the Paroxysmal vector indicate a great
deal of motoric excitement which would be in accord either
with the excited stage of catatonic symptoms or with hebe-
phrenic symptoms. The steady plus h, plus Sj open d, and
minus m choices support the latter hypothesis, since these
are factor correlations characteristic of manic psychotic
symptoms (which is also our conclusion or the basis of
the formalized analysis of the series), and hebephrenic
patients are known to show somewhat similar symptoma-
tology to manic psychotics.

Thus the final diagnosis would be schizophrenia, with
excited catatonic and erratic hebephrenic features. Par-

SZONDI TEST

334

oxysmal behavior and antisocial tendencies are to be
expected in this patient. Prognosis is very poor because
of the complete disorganization of the personality; the
steady plus h with plus s suggesting that the patient was
most probably a primitive and nonsublimating type of indi-
vidual, even before his actual breakdown. The open d,
minus m indicates a completely aggressive and negativistic
attitude toward his environment: there is no more object
attachment and no positive ways to seek gratification for
his strongly frustrated oral need for clinging.

I want to conclude with one more remark concerning
methodology. In the event we are confronted by a series
of profiles as inconsistent and disbalanced as this, inter-
pretation cannot proceed in any detailed elemental manner.
One may not begin with interpretation of the positions of
the single factors, vectors, or even whole single profiles,
since the essence of the entire series lies in changes, and
the fact that the series is inconsistent. Once this essence
has been grasped, and the diagnosis of psychotic disturbance
has been made, we can go into more careful observation
and comparison of the type of changes taking place in the
various vectors in order to reach a differential diagnosis.
However, every interpretation following the first realiza-
tion of psychotic disturbance is narrowed down in its mean-
ing to pathologic interpretation. For example, there is no
point in the interpretation, on the basis of the first profile,
of B.I.’s behavior as “ethical” (plus e) and self<ontrolled
(minus k), when the changes on the next profile indicate
the diametric opposite of these characteristics. Similarly,
plus h with plus s — ^usually a nonsublimating but rather
well amalgamated and “healthy” picture of sexuality, cer-
tainly can not be interpreted as such, if none of the other
factorial constellations indicates any possibility for a satis-
factory object relationship, or, in analytic terms, a satisfactory
handling of the libido. It indicates only, in this most patho-

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 335

logic context, that this is a man with strong sexual and
aggressive impulses ready to be discharged.

In other words, interpretation must always be flexible.
First, the interpreter has to inspect the series as a whole;
he has to get a “feeling” for the general structural char-
acteristics as well as for the type of changes taking place.
In this manner, he can decide about the probability of
the four main categories: well-functioning individual; neu-
rotic; psychotic, or antisocial. Detailed interpretation of
the vectors, profiles, syndromes, etc., follows this first gen-
eral inspection, the choice among the various possible mean-
ings of a given constellation being defined by the general
pattern of the whole series. Interpretation which does not
follow this “from the whole to the parts” approach, can
sometimes take a much longer time, resulting in a great
number of partial interpretations, which are hard to inte-
grate into a coherent personality characterization. The
statements might even be wholly correct and fitting to the
subject in question, yet ultimately fail to impel the feeling
that the interpretation adequately has described a living,
human individual.

The most important points of the case history of patient
B.I. are the following: at the time the tests were adminis-
tered, B.I. had been in a state hospital for two years. He
was committed by the court to which he was brought as a
result of his commission of robbery several times. His
psychotic behavior was immediately obvious at his hearing.
He had a continuous silly laughter, and was obviously
hallucinating, being unable to give any coherent answer.
He was an illegitimate child, brought up in an orphanage
until he was six (frustrated need to cling — ^minus m!) at
which age he was taken by his mother. The mother at
that time lived with a sadistic and alcoholic man. At the
age of ten, the boy left his mother and wandered into
another city. He had various odd jobs, changing his work

SZONDI TEST

336

almost every week. He spent a few years in a reformatory.
After his release, he continued his restless life, wandering
as a vagrant, doing nothing in particular.

In the hospital his behavior was most erratic. He fluctu-
ated between manic elation and rages during which he
attacked his room mates physically. He hallucinated a great
deal, having auditive, visual, but mainly tactile hallucina-
tions. He frequently felt that he was being touched in
a sexual way (strong plus h, plus s) and enjoyed the touch,
which was usually the reason he gave when asked the cause
of his elated moods. He also had a great variety of inco-
herent delusional symptoms. He talked about “all his
women” (about 500 in number) who usually slept with him.
He said he was glad to be a man, because a woman has to
be “split in two” when she bears a child. (This is an inter-
esting projection of his own experience of being “split.”)
He talked about his plans to become a boxer once he was
released (plus s), or to become a general who would order
his soldiers to kill millions of people. Sometimes he had
religious delusions, and spoke of himself as the founder of
innumerable churches.

He felt extremely strong and healthy (plus plus s) but
he had to take care of himself to remain so. Every night,
he felt that he had to lie in a certain position on his right
side in order to keep strong and to live a hundred years.
Sometimes he worried whether he really did not change his
position during the night (syndrome of hypochondriac
anxiety, indicated by the minus hy with minus k).

He had delusions and actual symptoms of pyromania,
having attempted several times to set the hospital on fire
(paroxysmal epileptoid equivalent).

The comparison of the series of profiles of B.I. and that
of F.T. (fig. 5) shows diametric opposite structural features
in every respect, just as the severe compulsive rigidity of
F-T. was diametrically opposite to the most erratic psychotic
behavior of B.I.

SYNDROMES AND CASE ILLUSTRATIONS 337

In the first ten profiles of F.T. there was no “mirror”-
change in any of the vectors. There was not even a single
turning over from a plus to a minus reaction, or the reverse,
in any of the factors. The absolute number of plus-minus
reactions has been 25 as against the eight plus-minus reac-
tions of B.I. This alone indicates an over-controlled
behavior, with lack of spontaneity in F.T. The possible
diagnosis of psychosis could be immediately eliminated on
the basis of the high number of ambivalent reactions, par-
ticularly with a steady ambivalent k factor, and the general
consistency of the reactions. Criminal behavior can be elimi-
nated on the same basis, adding also the presence of the
steady minus s, and the plus part of the e and the m factors.
Next, one would have to decide whether this subject is a
well-controlled, psychologically healthy person, or whether
he is an over-controlled neurotic. The fact that ambivalence
is found consistently in the e, the and the m factors/^ decides
definitely for the latter diagnosis, particularly with the prac-
tically always drained p factor.

By now we know that minus k with open p, and plus-
minus k with open p, is the characteristic reaction of sub-
jects who fight against accepting their need to cathect objects
and who fight compulsively against their own emotions.
Plus-minus k, with open p, has been pointed out as the
typical reaction of persons who want to free themselves from
an emotional tie, but who nevertheless remain in this stage
of fighting against their own drives instead of really freeing
themselves. An escape into forced sublimation would be
a possible solution for this Sch configuration; however, the
unhappy object relationship as indicated by the open d with
plus-minus and plus d with plus-minus m configuration,
precludes the hypothesis that this man is able to find satis-
faction on a sublimated level (minus d, plus m, or open d,
plus m would be expected in this case). Furthermore, the
steady minus s without any counter-balancing one plus s,
in the case of a 32 year old man, is certainly more than

SZONDI TEST

338

just the indication for a healthy but passive behavior. Par-
ticularly when it is associated with steady plus or open
as in the case of F.T., does it show pathologically submissive
and masochistic characteristics.

Finally the ambivalent and steady loading of the e factor
indicates a continuous fight for keeping up controlled
behavior while, at the same time the steadily drained hy
shows that something is acted out continuously. Consider-
ing all the indications for constrictive control (plus-minus
plus-minus k with open p) and the repressed aggression as
indicated by the steady minus Sj the logical conclusion is
that this man can act out continuously nothing but a sort
of exhibitionistically compulsive repetitive symptom. His
case history has been presented in connection with the
formalized analysis of this series. Here I wanted to come
back briefly to this case in order to show how, on the basis
of the qualitative interpretation of the vectorial and factorial
constellations, we would have arrived at the same conclusion
in diagnosing this man as a severe compulsion neurotic.
The monotony of this series, with all the signs of constrictive
control and repressed aggression, is in striking contrast to
the complete disorganization of all the controlling mecha-
nisms with complete lack of repressing aggression in the
case of our previously presented schizophrenic patient.

The presentation of these few interpretations closes this
introduction to the Szondi method. Although the illustra-
tive profiles are limited, it is to be hoped that they are
adequate to facilitate interpretation of other profiles not
included. Actually, the variety of factorial combinations
is almost infinite; as in the case of any other projective
technic, the real process of learning, although aided by
books, can be acquired only through many years of expe-
rience in working with the method, and through starting
with cases for which additional clinical material is avail-
able. A second book concerning clinical application of the
Szondi test, with ample case material, will follow soon.

Author Index

Abraham, K., 118, 119, 131--32

Bender, L., 73

Buhler, C., 227

Caille, R. K., 73

Dembo, T., 98, 101

Deri, O., 195

Deri, S., 197

Ferenczi, S., 119

Freud, A., 113

Freud, S., 77, 88, 105, 118, 119, 121,
122, 167, 170, 184, 185, 189, 190,
191, 196, 216, 220, 259, 261
Goldstein, K., 74, 76, 82, 232
Harrower, M., 15
Hinsie, L. E., 284
Jung, C. G., 167, 284
Kelley, D., 89, 214
Klopfer, B„ 89, 214

Danger, S. K., 261
Lee, H. B., 130
Lewin, K., 25, 98, 165, 171
Milne, A. A., 217, 218
Nunberg, H., 167, 194, 195
Piaget, J., 153, 197, 212, 227
Rank, O., 269
Reich, W., 247
Rorschach, H., 89
Shatzky, J., 284
Schilder, P., 68-69, 73, 167
Schiller, F., 176

Szondi, L., 1, 2, 49-50, 51, 53, 54,
55» 56, 57» 59-6 o » 80, 82, 91, 191,
210, 224, 329
Werner, H., 82
Wolff, W., 91-92

339

General Index

Actors

and plus hy, loi
open m in, 145
Adaptation, 74
alloplastic, 74, 76
autoplastic, 74, 76
Adolescence

emotional conflict in, 116

marginal character of, 239

minus d with minus m in, 153

minus h with minus s in, 83

minus h with plus s in, 86

minus k with open p in, 238

minus k with plus p in, 238, 242

minus p in, i8i

open d with open m in, 163

open hy in, 108

plus h with minus s in, 85

plus hy in, 103

plus k with minus p in, 220

plus m in, 138

plus-minus d with plus-minus m
in, 166

plus-minus e in, 95
plus-minus e with plus-minus hy,
116

plus-minus k in, 204
plus-minus k with plus-minus p
in, 279

plus-minus s in, 78-79
plus p in, 178
Adolescents

compulsiveness of, 239
ego development in, 238-40
“Adualistic” stage, 212, 217, 225, 268
Adults

antisocial, 224
minus d in, 127

minus d with minus m in, 152-53

minus d with plus m in, 148

minus e in, 93-94

minus h with minus s in, 83

minus hy in, io6

minus k with open p in, 236

minus k with plus p in, 240

minus p in, i8i

open d in adults, 131

open d with minus m in, 161

open d with open m in, 163

open d with plus m in, 158, 159

Adults — continued
open e in, 96
open hy in, 108
of>en k in, 209
open k with plus p in, 273
open m in, 145

plus d with plus-minus m in, 164
plus e in, 90-91
plus e with minus hy in, 110
plus hy in, 103

plus k with minus p in, 218-19
plus k with open p in, 255
plus k with plus p in, 248
plus-minus e in, 95
plus-minus hy in, 107
plus-minus k in, 204, 290
plus-minus k with minus p in, 224
plus-minus k with plus-minus p
in, 279

plus-minus k with plus p in
young, 243-45, 248
plus-minus 5 in, 79
plus p in, 178

Age, in relation to plus s, 74, 75
Age groups, 180
minus k with minus p in, 232
minus p in, 181-82
Aggression, 149, 159, 177, 236
ambivalent, 78
“intellectual,” 314-15
“masculine,” 319
minus e in, 93
minus h with plus s in, 85
in open k with open p subject,
283

and plus e, 90
open 5 in, 79

plus h with minus s in, 84, 85
plus 5 with minus d in, 125
repressed, 56-57
Agoraphobia, 158
Alloplastic adaptation, 74, 76
Ambivalence, 142, 143, 145, 165-66,
182, 204, 222, 264, 278-79, 322-23
of open k with plus p subject,
269-70

of plus-minus d character, 127-28
and plus-minus e, 94
plus-minus e with plus-minus hy
in, 115-16

340

GENERAL INDEX

341

Ambivalence — continued
in plus-minus k with plus p, sub-
ject, 245

Ambivalent reaction, 35-37, 42
Anal characteristics
and d factor, 119-22
and depression symptoms, 121
and positive reaction in the d fac-
tor, 122

Anal characters, 119
and d factor, 23
and money, 125-26
Anal erotism, 130-31
Anal needs, 153-54, 155
**Anal” persistence, 164
Anal perversions, 162
Anal-sadistic, 150, 312
profile of unmodified tendency,
313

Anal tenacity, 299
Anticathexis, 139-40
Antisocial Behavior. See Behavior,
antisocial

Anxiety, 120-21, 145, 156
diffuse, 152
drive-, 81, 113-14
experience similar to, 250-51
hyperchondriac, 186, 237, 278
minus e with minus hy in, 113
minus hy in diffuse, 105
objectified, 304
phobic, 186

plus e with minus hy in, 110
plus m in, 136
plus-minus k in, 203
plus-minus k with open p in, 290
in plus-minus k with plus p sub-
ject, 246, 247
real, 251

with structured symptom, 186
Anxiety hysteria, 145, 202
open hy in, io8
plus hy in, 102-3
Apathy, 187
Art critics

minus h with minus s in, 82
Artistic creativity, 137

and mystical animistic thinking,
213

Artistic productivity, 176
Artists

open d with plus m in, 158
open k with minus p in, 214
plus m in, 137
plus s in, 75
Asceticism, 152

Associations

to test pictures, 17-24
Atypical factorial correlations, 291
“Atypical” individuals, 219
Atypical reactions, for subject’s
chronological age, 290-gi
Authors. See Writers
Autism, 110, 152, 153, 165, 166, 218,
265

infantile, 197, 239
omnipotent, 225

of open k with minus p subjects,
213

of plus-minus k with plus-minus p
subject, 276
“physiologic,” 197
psychotic, 194
Autistic

meaning of, 207

Autistic defense mechanisms, 225
Autistic projection, 222
Autoplastic adaptation, 74, 76
“Autoplastic” omnipotence, 270

Behavior
and minus e, 94
and open $, 79
and plus e, 90
plus e with minus hy, 109
plus e with plus hy in social, 115
of plus-minus k with plus-minus
p subject, 275-76

Behavior, antisocial, 75, 83, 111, 123,
*5L ^54

minus k with minus p in, 253
minus m in, 140
minus p in, 180-81
open d in, 131

plus d with minus m in, 150
plus k with minus p in, 219-20
plus k with plus p in, 253-55
plus m in, 137
plus m reaction in, 137
plus-minus k in, 204
reason for, 1 14
See also Criminality
Behavior, social

of minus k with plus p adult, 241
of open d with plus m individual,

156, 157

of plus-minus k with plus p sub-
ject, 246

Bi -equal drive class, 56

Birth-trauma, 269

Bisexuality, 143, 154

“Block of irreality,” 152, 153-54, 165

Body-hallucinations, 200

GENERAL INDEX

342

Boundary-forces, 187
Boundaries
functional, 171
Boys. See Adolescence; Children

C vector

mirror reversals in, 43
Case histories. See Case illustrations
Case illustrations
of compulsive neurotic, 58-63
of minus k with minus p, 308-14
of 19 year old male sentenced for
murder, 308-14

open k with plus-minus p, 294-

304

of plus-minus k with open p, 289-
94

of schizophrenic patient, 326-38
of 20 year old medical student,
314-26

Catatonic schizophrenia, 187, 193-94,
199-200

associations by a patient, 18-19
open d in, 131
open k in, 209

plus e with minus hy in, 109-10
Catatonic symptoms, 187
Cathexis
of feces, 119-20
Category of drive, 55-56
Causality, need for, 195
‘‘Character armor,” 247
Character formation
and excretory processes, 119-22
Character-neurotics, 196, 247
plus k with open p in 266
Cathexis in plus k with plus p, 249
Children
autism, 197
minus d in, 127

minus d with minus m in, 152-53

minus d with plus m, 148

minus e in, 93-94

minus e with minus hy in, 114

minus e with plus hy in, 112

minus h in, 71

minus h with minus s in, 83

minus h with plus s in, 86

minus hy in, 105, 106

minus k in, 202

minus k with minus p in, 226, 232
minus k with open p in, 232
minus m in, 141-42
minus p in, 181-82
minus s in, 76

object- and not ego-oriented, 226

Children — continued

open d with minus m in, 161
open d with open m in, 162-63
open d with plus m in, 158
open e in, 96
open hy in, 108
open k in, 209

open k with minus p in, 268

open k with plus p in, 273

open m in, 145

open p in, 186

open s in, 79

plus d in, 123-24

plus d with minus m in, 149, 150-

51

plus d with plus m in, 155
plus e in, 90

plus e with minus hy in, 110
plus e with plus hy in, 115
plus h with minus s in, 85
plus h with plus s, in, 81, 82
plus hy in, 103
plus k in, 197

plus k, with minus p in, 215, 220
plus k with open p, in, 266
plus m in, 138
plus-minus d in, 129
plus-minus d with plus-minus m,
166

plus-minus e in, 95

plus-minus k in, 204

plus-minus k, with minus p, 221-24

plus-minus m in, 143

plus p in, 178

plus s in, 74

See also. Adolescence, Puberty
Choice reactions
four modes of, 32-34
of manic-depressive patients, ii8
Circular psychoses, and C, 118
Circular vector. See Contact vector
Class Ss-, 59, 60
Cm-, 327-29
Collections, 123
College students
plus p in, 178
Competitiveness, 154
Component drives
latent homosexual, 264
pregenital, 264
Composers

open k with minus p in, 214
Compulsion

in plus-minus k with open p, 290
plus e with minus hy, 109

GENERAL INDEX

343

Compulsion neurosis, 143, 165-66,

202, 237

minus p in, 181
open p in, 186
plus e in, 91

plus h with minus s in, 85
plus-minus e in, 95
plus-minus e with plus-minus hy
in, n6

plus-minus hy in, 107
Compulsive behavior, of young peo-
ple, 239

Compulsive defenses, 231
Compulsi\e features
in prepuberty, 234-36
Compulsive mechanism

in minus k with open p, 233-36
Compulsive needs

work as outlet for, 236
Compulsive neurosis
case histoiy of, 60-62
and open s, 80
Compulsive neurotics
minus k with plus p in, 242
Compulsive process, 185
Compulsive symptom
in neurotic, 259-60
Compulsiveness, of adolescents, 239
Conceptualization, 177
Conflict
“double,” 165
“Faustian,” 252
in identification, 320
in minus k with plus p adult,

241-42

in plus k with plus p^ 250
Conformity, 238
and minus k, 237
Conservatism, 147

in minus d individuals, 124
Contact vector, and its factors, 66
Controlling mechanism, H2
Conversion hysteria, 202, 237
minus h with plus 5, in, 86
minus hy in, 105
minus hy in, 106
minus m in, 141
plus e in, 91

plus e with minus hy in, 110
plus hy in, 102
Countercathexis, 234
successful in minus k with open
P* 233

Creativeness, 137, 176
of plus-minus k with plus-minus
p subject, 276-77
Criminality, 160, 307
minus d with plus m in, 147
minus e with plus hy in, 111, 114
minus k with minus p in, 229, 230,
231

minus m in, 140
open d in, 131
open d with minus m, 310
open e with open hy in, 117
open hy in, 108
plus d with minus m in, 150
plus e with minus hy, 109
plus k with plus s in, 81
plus k with minus p in, 219-20
plus-minus d in, 128
plus-minus e with plus-minus hy
in, 116

plus-minus k in, 204
profile of murderous impulses, 313
profiles of sentenced murderer, 308
Crisis

plus-minus p in, 182
d, 12

d factor, 22-23, 119-31
and Contact vector, 66
Daydi'eaming
minus hy in, 104
Defense-mechanism, 183
as a *‘need,” 236
of compulsive type, 234-36
of projection, 171-72
of repression, 202
Defense mechanisms
autistic, 225
ego-protective, 204
“Degree of latency,” 52, 53, 54-55
Degree of structurization, of open k
with minus p, 210-12
Delinquency. See Criminality
Delusions, 200
Delusions of grandeur, 175
Dementia paralytica, 215
Depersonalization, 251
Depression, 126, 143, 149, 163, 164,
180, 220, 266

in anal characters 120-21
disposition toward, 123
and plus $, 77
Depression symptoms, 196
and anal characteristics, 121
Depressive patients, 120-21
Depressive psychosis, 196

GENERAL INDEX

344

Detachment, in minus d with minus
m individual, 151
Diagnostic categories. See Factors
Differentiation

between person and environment,

215 .

Diffuse anxiety, 152
minus e with minus hy in, 113-114
minus hy in, 105
Disciplined ego, 241
stage of, 225
“Double” conflict, 165
“Double”-defense, 216
Drained reaction. See Open reaction
Drive-anxiety, 113-14
plus h with plus s in, 81
Drive-class, 55-57, 58
Drive-class

c„,-, 327-29

Drive-formula, 51
Drives, 118
Driving force, 25
Dualistic stage, 225
of ego development, 216-18

e, 12

e factor, 21, 88-97
and P, 65
repression in, 35
Education, 225

Ego, 167-69, 170-71, 172, 183, 185
in adolescence, 239
“adualistic” stage, 212
in coma-like states, 209
complex organization of, 245
conforming, 230
in epilepsy, 332
“fluid,” 175-76, 207
Freudian concept of, 189
and identification, 191, 195
and introjection, 192
in manic process, 231
and minus k, 198
and narcissism, 205
narcissistic integrity of, 198
“over-worked,” 249
in psychotic process, 232
in puberty, 239
role of, 280

synthetic function of, 194
tension-free integrity of, 202
in youngest infant 210-12
Egocentricity, 194
Ego-defense, 215
Ego-development, 209, 210-12
in adolescence, 238-40
“dualistic” stage of, 216-18

Ego-development — continued
“in-between” stage of, 222-23
minus k with open p, 235-36
in plus-minus kj with plus p, 243
review of first four stages of, 225
Ego-diastole, 191-92
Ego-dynamism, most frequently used,
224

Ego integration, 321
and minus s, 320
Ego-less state
and open k, 206
Ego libido, 185
Ego-mechanism, 191
of introjection, 185, 191
of plus k with minus p, 216-19
of plus k with plus p, 255
Ego need, 173
Ego organization

in late adolescence, 244
in young adulthood, 244
Ego picture

of medical student, 315-24
of minus k with minus p, 308-11
of 19 year old male sentenced for
murder, 308-11
of open k with open p, 280
of open k with plus p, 266-72
of open k with plus-minus p, 294-98
of open p with plus-minus k, 289-91
of plus k witli open p, 256^0,
263-66

of plus k with plus p, 253-54, 255
of plus-minus k with plus-minus
p, 273-76

of schizophrenic patient, 327-34
variability of, 243

Ego-processes, in minus k with minus
p subject, 228
Ego-systole, 191-92
Ego-strength, 204
in old age, 209

Ego structure, 167, 170-71, 199
and minus h with minus s, 82
Sch vector reflects, 117
Ego structuring, 155
Ego vector, 169, 262-63
Ego vector. See also Sch
Electro-shock therapy, 196-97
Emotions

and symptoms, 102-3
minus k with open p, 237
open e with open hy in, 116-17
in open k with minus p subjects,
213

“Emotional ideas,” 250
Emotional needs, 249

GENERAL INDEX

345

‘‘Empathy/* 290

Energy-consuming mechanism, 153
Energy-organization, 262, 263
Environment, 205, 222
and introjection, 192
Envy, 154

Epilepsy, 88-89, 97* 215, 332

ego picture of, 332
minus e, in 94

minus e with plus hy in, 111
minus m in, 141
open e in, 96
open h in, 209
plus h with minus s, in, 85
plus h with plus 5 in, 81
plus-minus d in, 128
Epileptic grand-mal, 223
Epileptoid psychopath, 224
Erotic libido, 185
Escape, 165
Ethical control, 90
Excretory processes, 119-20
Exhibitionism, 100, 300
and minus hy, 104, 105
of open k with open p, subject, 283
plus e with plus hy in, 115
plus k with plus p in, 255
plus-minus hy in, 106-7
Exhibitionistic- narcissistic drives, 292
“sign” for, 291

“Extra-punitive” tendencies, 180
Extrasensorial perception
interest in, 268
Extroversion, 74

Factorial association experiment, 17,

23

Factorial correlations
atypical, 291

Factorial reversals, 41-42
Factors

ambivalent, 33

interpretation of the eight, 25
minus, 33
named, 12
negative, 33
plus, 33
positive, 33
Fanaticism, 219, 271
“Faustian” conflict, 252
Feces

cathexis, 119-20
Feeble-mindedness

plus h with plus s in, 82
Femininity, 71-73, 75, 77, 78, 85
Fixation, 296
incestuous, 148

Flexibility, 245
“Fluid” ego, 175-76
FM responses, 214
Forepleasure, 144
Frigidity, 71

minus h with minus s in, 83
Frustration, 120, 138-40, 143, 151, 152,
153* 154. 156, i59» 160, 161, 205
and plus k with minus p, 215, 216
in plus k with open p, subject,
259-60

Frustration tolerance, 265
Functional boundaries, 171
Fusion, into love-object, 183

Games,

children’s, 226
as projection, 218
“Gang” formation, 151
General paresis, minus k with minus
p in, 229

Genital primacy, 144
Girls. See Adolescence, Children
Goal -object, 25-26
“Greediness,” 154
Guilt feelings, 236
and minus hy, 105-6
and plus e, 90

h, 12
hy, 12

h factor, 20, 67-73
and S, 65
Half-autism, 225
Hallucinations
body, 200

Hallucinatory satisfaction, 215
Heart disease, 278
Hedonist, 157, 162, 163
Helplessness
plus-minus p, 182
Heterosexual object cathexis, 143
Heterosexuality, 77-78, 143
and open h with open 5, 81
Histories, case. See Case illustrations
Hobbies, 234

Hoi^sexual object cathexis, 143
Homosexuality, 78
and h factor, 67-69, 72-73
minus hy in, 105-6
passive, 84

plus h with minus s in, 84-85
plus k with plus p in, 255
plus m in, 138
plus s in, 75

GENERAL INDEX

346

Homosexuality, latent. See Latent
homosexuality
Humor, sense of, 258
hy factor, 21-22, 97-100
and P, 65
Hyper-activity, 154
Hypnosis

interest in, 268
Hypochondria
minus d in, 126
minus p in, 181

Hypochondriac anxiety, 186, 237, 278
Hypomania, 160

Hypomanic excitement, plus h with
plus 5 in, 81
Hysteria, 97, 98, 99-100
open hy in, 108
plus e with minus hy in, 110
plus hy in, 101-2
See also Anxiety hysteria
See also Conversion hysteria
Hysteroepilepsy, 97
hy in, 102

Hysteroid individuals, and open hy,
108

Hysteroid symptoms
associated with minus h with minus
s, 83

Id, 114, 167-69, 174, 189-90
and minus e, 93
in youngest infant, 210-12
Id-demand, 198

Id-drives, 112-13, 168-69, 174, 206
repression of, 185-86
Id-impulse, 205-6, 239
warded off, 260
Id-tension, 260
Idealism, 151

in minus d individuals, 124
Ideas of reference, 175
Ideas of persecution, 175
Immaturity
genital, 145
sexual, 145, 237

“Immediate” projection, 211-12
Impotency

minus h with minus s in, 83
In-between stage
of Ego-development, 222-23
Incest, 148
Indecision, 127

Identification, 168, 184, 185, 189, 195,
S57-58. 879
conflict in, 320
described by Freud, 191
double, 325-26

Identification — continued
with emotional needs, 248, 249
and plus e, 89
Indifference, 159
Infantile autism, 153, 197, 239
Infantile personality, 162-^3
Insatiability, 154
Instinct-dilemma, 266
“Instinctual dilemma,” 256
Instruction

for administering test, 9-10, 12,
15-16

Insufiiciency, 240

Intellectual aggression, 314-15

“Intellectuals”

plus-minus k with plus p in, 247
Interpretation

of cases, 104-5, 288-304, 307-24,

386-35

method of, 335

Introjection, 185, 189, 191, 197, 199,
200, 202, 244, 257, 258-59
and the ego, 192, 193
Introjective mechanism, 215, 217
Introversion, 188-89
Intuition, i8q, 277

k, 12

k factor, 22, 169, 186-209
and Sch, 66

as boundary-forces, 187
Laborers

minus k with minus p in, 228
plus p in, 178
Lack of tension, 187
Latent aggression, 231
Latent homosexuality, 78, 279, 183-84
minus hy in, 105
minus k with plus p in, 242
plus h with minus s in, 84
plus k with plus p in, 255
Latent need, in “disciplined” ego,
242

Latency period, 141
in children, 227
Latenzgrdsse, 52
Latenzproportionen, 55
Libido, 187

“adhesive” quality, 121, 123, 124

ego, 185

erotic, 185

hy factor in, 97-98

multiorientation of, 153-54

in narcissism, 191

narcissistic, 257

narcissistic withdrawal of, 296
primary object of, 125

GENERAL INDEX

347

Loaded reaction, 27
Logic, 180

Love-object, 152, 257-58, 279
loss of, 191

of minus k with minus p subject,
228

and open hy, 108
secondary, 205
specificity of, 253

rn, 12

m factor, 23, 131-66
and Contact vector, 66
Mania, 132-34, 140-41
incipient, 160
minus k in, 202
plus h with plus s in, 81
Manic-depressive psychoses, 165
open e with open hy in, 117
Manic process, 231
Manic psychosis, 132-34, 202
minus e with plus hy in, 111
minus k with minus p in, 229
open d with plus m, 310
open hy in, 108
plus k in, 197
Manic rage, 231
minus k with minus p in, 229
‘‘Marginal” character, of young peo-
ple, 239

“Martyr” characters, 303
“Masculine” aggression, 319
“Masculinity,” 86
Masochism, ' 269, 296-98
Masturbation, minus e with minus
hy, 114

Materialism, 149
Matin ation, 225
Mechanism

energy-consuming, 153
of introjection, 215, 217
self-regulating, 112
Medical student
profiles of, 315
case illustration of, 314-26
Melancholia

differentiated from mourning, 121
Freud's theory on psychodynamics
of, 220
Men

plus h with minus s in, 84
See also Adults
Mental disorder
genetic origin of, i
Methodology, 334-35
Minus d, 124-27, 292-93

Minus d with minus m, 151-53
Minus d with plus m, 146-48, 292-

93. 323

Minus d with plus-minus m, 322
Minus €, 93-94, 310
Minus e with minus hy, 112-14
Minus e with open hy, 310, 316-18
Minus e with plus hy, 110-12
Minus h, 70-71, 320
Minus h with minus s, 82-83
Minus h with open s, 318-19
Minus h with plus s, 85-86
Minus hy 103-6, 300
Minus k, 198-202, 312
in symptom formation, 181
Minus k with minus p, 224-32, 253
Minus k with open p, 232, 283, 337
Minus k with plus p, 238-42
Minus m, 138-42, 311, 335
Minus p, 178-82
Minus s, 75-78, 337-38
and ego integration, 320
“Mirror-changes,” 330-31, 332
Mirror reaction, 43-44
Mirror reversal, 62
Money, 125-26
identification with feces, 120
Mother fixation, 125
Motor sphere, 98-99
Motor symptoms, emotions and, 102
Motor system, 168, 198
Motoric tension, 73
Mourning, 220

differentiated from melancholia, 121
Multiorientation of libido, 153-54
Murderers. See Criminality
Music, 195-96
Musicians

minus h with minus s in, 82
minus k with minus p in, 229
open d with plus m, 158
plus m in, 137
plus s in, 75
Mutism, 187

Narcissism, 191, 194
infantile form of, 209
and k factor, 188-89
secondary, 190
in open k subjects, 207
plus k with plus p subject, 254
in plus-minus k with plus p sub-
ject, 245

primary, 205, 207, 267
secondary, 205

Narcissistic-exhibitionistic drives, 292
“sign” for, 291

GENERAL INDEX

348

Narcissistic libido, 185, 205, 249, 257
from object-libido, 289
Narcissistic mechanisms, 189
Narcissistic nature, of catatonic
“stupor,” 195

Narcissistic surface barrier, 247
Need

for masculinity, 318-19
“Need for causality,” 195
“Need to fuse,” 268
Need-gratifications, 206
Need-system, 25, 26, 171, 187
and the eight factors, 26
Need- tension, 41, 25, 26, 178, 198-99,
215* 249
in infant, 212
object-directed, 184
Needs, 171, 189
Negativism, of child, 218
Neuroses, 143, 158, 162, 181
h factor in, 71
minus d with plus m, 148
minus e with plus hy in, 111
minus k in, 202

minus k with open p in adults, 236
open k with plus p in, 272
plus h with minus s in, 85
plus h with plus s in, 81
plus k in, 196

plus k with minus p in, 220
plus m in, 137

Neuroses, See also Character-neurot-
ics

plus-minus hy in, 107
Neuroses, paranoid forms of
plus-minus p in, 183-84
Neurosis

significance of plus 5 in, 75
Neurotic repression, 200

minus h with minus s in, 82-83
Nonacceptance. See Repression
Nonaggression, 147

Object-attachment, 122, 143, 146-47,
148, 149-50, 151, 155-54, 155-57.
158. 159. »6i, 164
and minus d individuals, 124
plus-minus m in, 142
traumatic experience, 120-21
See also Object-relationship
Object-cathexes, 169
Object-cathexis, 60
Object-choice, function of, 25
Object-directed need tension, 184
Object fixation, 151
Object-libido, 205, 249, 256, 257
transformed into narcissistic libido,
289

Object-love, 174, 258
Object of libido, 118
Object-relationship, 142-43, 144, 162,
163, 172

and anal characteristics, 119
of anal type summarized, 135
and open d, 129-30
of oral type, 134
of oral type summarized, 135
plus-minus d in, 127
See also Object-attachment
Objectified anxiety, 304
Objective symptom-fectors, 36
Occupation,
and h, 70

minus d with plus m in, 147
minus e in, 94
minus h with minus s in, 82
minus h with plus s in, 85
minus k with minus p in, 228
minus k with open p in, 236
minus s in, 77

open d with plus m in, 157-5S
open k with minus p in, 214
open k with plus p in, 270, 271
open m in, 145
plus d with minus m in, 149
plus d with plus m in, 154
plus e in, 91

plus e with minus hy in, 109
plus h with minus s in, 84
plus h with plus 5 in, 81
plus hy in, 101
plus k with minus p in, 219
plus k with open p in, 250
plus m in, 137
plus-minus hy in, 106
plus-minus k with plus-minus p in,
2^6

plus-minus k with plus p in, 247
plus p in, 177-78
and plus s, 74-75
Oedipal conflict, 72
in plus-minus k with plus-minus p
subject, 279
Oedipal period, 218
Oedipal phase, 143
and minus h with plus s, 86
Old age

minus d with plus m, 148

minus e with minus hy in, 114

minus e with plus hy in, 112

minus h with plus s' in, 86

minus k in, 202

minus k with plus p in, 242

minus m in, 142

minus p in, 181

open d with minus m in, i6i

GENERAL INDEX

349

Old age — continued
open d with plus m in, 158-159
open e in, g6

open e with open hy in, 117
open k in, 209

open k with minus p in, 215
open k with plus p in, 273
open p in, 186
plus d with minus m, 150
plus d with plus m in, 155
plus e with plus hy in, 115
plus hy in, 103
plus k in, 197
plus k with open p in, 266
plus k with plus p, 25K
plus m in, 138
plus-minus d in, 129
plus-minus d with plus-minus m,
166

plus-minus k in, 204
plus-minus k with plus-minus p in,

279

plus-minus k with plus p in, 248
plus-minus m in, 143
plus-minus p in, 184
Omnipotence
“autoplastic,” 270
of child’s ego, 240
in “dualistic” stage, 216-18, 225
and minus k, 238
in open k with plus p subject, 270
Omnipotent autism, 225
Open d, 129-31, 298-99, 309, 311
Open d with minus m, 159-61, 309-
10* 334

Open d with open m, 161-63
Open d with plus m, 155-59, 299
Open c, 95-96, 295, 300
Open e with minus hy, 300
Open e with open hy, 116-17
Open h, 72

Open h with open s, 80-81, 289

Open h with plus s, 308-g

Open hy, 107-8, 309

Open k, 205-9, 295

Open k with minus p, 210-15

Open k with open p, 280-85

Open k with plus-minus p, 294-304

Open k with plus p, 266-73

Open m, 143-46

Open p, 184-86

Open p with plus-minus k, 289-94
Open reaction, 27-28, 30, 34, 41, 42
in s factor, 28
Open s, 79-80

Oral character, 132-35, 156, 294-95
and tn factor, 23

Oral character — continued
plus m reaction in, 136-38
traits, 143

Oral dependency, 298

Oral drive, 132-35

Oral-erotism, 132

Oral frustration, 133, 136, 151

Oral gratification, 135

Oral need, 153-54. i55. i59“i6i

Oral perversion, 145, 162

Oral phase

in psychosexual development, 131-
35

Oral-sadistic, 144-45

Oral tension, 143

Oral zone, stimulability of, 144

Orderliness, 119, 123

Organic psychoses, 232

Organizing mechanisms, 202

Organizing power

implied in k factor, 199
in old age, 209
“over-cathected,” 249

P, and its factors, 65
p, 12

p factor, 22, 169, 170-86, 187, 191, 195
p factor

and Sch, 66
P vector

mirror reversals in, 43
Painters

minus k with minus p in, 229
minus p in, 179
plus 7 n in, 137

Paranoia, 174-75. 178, 180, 183
plus h with minus s in, 85
and plus s, 77
Paranoid individuals
open k with plus p in, 272
Paranoid patients
open k in, 209
Paranoid psychotics
open k with plus p in, 272
Paranoid schizophrenia, 165-66
association by a patient, 17-18
minus d in, 126
Paresis,

minus e with plus hy in, 111
Paroxysmal symptoms, 223
Paroxysmal tachycardia, 278
Paroxysmal vector. See P
Paroxysmality, 88
and open e, 96
Parsimony, 119
Passive activity, 282

GENERAL INDEX

350

Passive homosexuality

plus h with minus $ in, 84
Passivity, 147, 155, 265
Pedantry, 119, 123
Perceptual system, 168
Persecution, 175
Perseveration, 89
Persona

defined, 284-85

Personality, 7-8, 161, 167, 188
of anal characters, 119-23
anal-sadistic, 312
definition of mature, 245
eight dimensional concept of, 26
infantile, 144, 162-63
minus h with minus s in, 83
oral phase, 131-35
persona, 284-85
plus e in, 90
plus hy in, 101
structure, 189
structure of hysteria, 98
topological representation of, 98,
170-71

Perversion, 162
oral, 145

plus-minus s in sexual, 79
Phantasy, suicidal, 143
Phobic anxiety, 186
plus e with minus hy in, 110
Physiologic” autism, 197
“Platonic” love, 68
Pleasure principle, 221
Plus d, 172, 122-24, 311
Plus d with minus m, 148-51
Plus d with plus m, 153-55
Plus d with plus-minus m, 163-64
Plus d with plus s, 311
Plus e, 89-93, 300
Plus e with minus hy, 109-10
Plus e with plus hy, 114-15
Plus h, 69-70, 228, 302
Plus h with minus s, 83-85
Plus h with plus-minus s, 301
Plus h with plus s, 81-82, 334-35
Plus hy, 100-3, 172
Plus k, 190-97, 296
Plus k with minuj p, 215-21
Plus k with open p, 255-66, 274
Plus k with plus p, 248-55, 275, 317,
321, 322

Plus m, 135-38, 172, 292
Plus-minus d, 127-29
Plus-minus d with plus-minus m,
164-66, 322
Plus-minus e, 94-95
Plus-minus h, 71-72

Plus-minus hy, 106-7
Plus-minus k, 202-4
Plus-minus k with minus p, 221-24
Plus-minus k with open p, 297, 337
case illustration, 289-94
Plus-minus k with plus-minus p, 273-
79, 280, 281

Plus-minus k with plus p, 242-48
Plus-minus m, 142-43, 323
Plus-minus p, 182-84, 296, 298
Plus-minus s, 78-79, 301, 302
Plus p, 172, 173, 175-78, 183
Plus s, 73-75» 93» 172, 228, 235, 311,
336

in aggression, 177
and link to plus d, 122
and plus-minus hy, 106
Politicians
and plus hy, 101
Possessiveness, 119
Preconscious, 177, 178
in thinking, 213
“Pre-ego stage,” 212
“Prelogical” thinking
minus hy in, 104
Prepsychosis, 79
Prepuberty
minus hy and, 106
minus k with open p in, 236
sexuality in, 234
See also Children
Preschizophrenia, 321
Primary love-object, 147
Primary narcissism, 205, 207, 267
Primary object attachment, 155, 158
Primary trauma, 297
, Profile

significance of first, 330, 333
Projection, 152, 171-72, 178, 179-80,
181, 182, 192
autistic, 222

as defense mechanism, 183
“immediate,” 211-12
in open k with plus p subject, 269
unconscious, 159, 183, 213, 226
Projective mechanism, 222
Projective technic, 171, 260-61
associations to test pictures, 17-24
concepts, 7

factorial association experiment, 17
purpose of, 6
Professional groups
plus m in, 137

Professions. See Occupations
Proportions of latencies, 55
Pseudologia phantastica
minus hy in, 105

GENERAL INDEX

351

Psychiatrists

minus k with minus p in, 228
Psychoanalysis
anal drive, 118
artistic creation, 137
oral drive, 118
Psychoanalytic concepts
and Szondi test, 190
Psychoanalytic mechanisms, 34-35
Psychoanalytic theory, 177
Psychoanalytic treatment, and k fac-
tor, 196
Psychologists

minus k with minus p in, 228
minus h with minus s in, 82
Psychopaths, 145
Psychoses, 160, 180, 186
circular, 118
manic, 229, 310

minus d with minus m in, 152
minus d with plus m, 148
minus e with plus hy in, 111
and minus h with minus s, 83
minus k in, 202
open e in, 96

open e with open hy in, 117

open hy in, 108

open k in, 208

and open s, 80

organic, 232

plus e in, 91

plus e with minus hy in, iog-10
plus h with minus s in, 85
plus k with minus p in, 220
plus m in, 137
plus-minus k in, 204
and plus-minus k with plus-minus
p subject, 278-79
Psychoscxual development, 144
and excretory processes, 119-22
oral phase, 131-35
oral-sadistic phase, 144-45
Psychosomatic symptoms, 295
minus k with plus p in, 242
Psychotic autism, 194
Psychotic depression, 180
minus d in, 126
plus k with minus p in, 220
Psychotic process, 232
Puberty

minus hy and, 106
minus k with plus p in, 238, 242
ego in, 239
open m in, 145
plus hy in, 103
plus k with minus p in, 220
plus-minus k reactions at, 204

Puberty — continued
plus-minus 5, 78
See also Adolescence

Quadri-equal drive class, 56

Ratio

values, 37-38

Reaction. See Open reaction
Reaction-formation, 142
Realism, 149
Reality principle, 221
Reasoning, in open k subjects, 207
See also Thinking
Recognition

"short circuit” of, 178
Recording sheet. See Test profile
recording form

Repression, 34 “ 35 » ^ 5 ^* 185, 189, 197,
198-200, 202, 244

in minus k with plus p subject, 238,
240-41

in plus k with open p, 259-60
in plus-minus k with plus p sub-
ject, 246

and social learning, 202
Restlessness, 222
Reversals, 330-31, 332
Rigid

as used in Szondi test, 208
Rigidity, 187, 257
Root factor, 47, 50, 53
Rorschach
and epilepsy, 89
Rorschach records
of minus k subjects, 201
of plus k subjects, 201
of subjects with open k, minus p,
214

Rorschach test
plus hy and, 101

s, 12
S

h factor in, 67-73
and its factors, 65
s factor, 20-21, 73-87
open reaction in, 28
and S, 65
S«-, 59, 60
S vector, 54

mirror reversals in, 43-44
Sadism, 298
Sadistic impulse
and plus s factor, 235
Sadistic needs, 242
Sado-masochism, 60
and plus-minus s, 79

GENERAL INDEX

352

Sch

and its factors, 65-66
vectorial constellations, 209-85
Schicksalanalyse, 1
Schizoid individuals, 266
Schizophrenia, 215, 231-32
case illustration of, 326-38
catatonic, 187, 193-941 199-200, 209
characteristic profile in, 45
incipient, 266

minus k with plus p in, 242
mirror reversals in Sch vector, 43
paranoid, 17-18, 126, 165-66
plus e in, 91, 92

plus e with minus hy in catatonic,
109-10

plus k with minus p in, 220
profiles of patient, 328
Schizophrenic vector. See Sch
Scientists

minus k with minus p in, 229
minus k with open p in, 236
open k with plus p in, 271-72
Scoring sheet. See Test profile re-
cording form
Sculptors

minus k with minus p in, 229
plus m in, 137
plus s in, 75

Secondary narcissism, 205, 208
Self, 169
Self-control, 238
Self-deception, 139
Self-defense, 235
Self-love. See Narcissism
Self-regulating mechanism, 112
Senility

minus h minus s in, 83
Sense of humor, 258
Series

changes in, 330-31
Sexual attitudes

of minus k with minus p subject,
228

Sexual immaturity
in adults, 237
Sexual organization
in open d with open m individual,
162

Sexual vector. See S
Sexuality, 155, 264, 279
in adolescents, 239
immature, 162

as indicated by minus h with
minus 5, 82
infantile, 80

minus h with minus s in, 82

Sexuality — continued
oral component drive of, 137, 144
plus h with plus s in, 81
in prepuberty period, 234
specificity of love-object, 253
Shyness

minus hy in, 103

Social behavior. See Behavior, social
Social learning

and repression, 202
Stage

*‘adualistic,” 268
Stealing, 20
Stereotypy, 89
Stinginess, 126

Structuring the environment, 178
Stubbornness, of child, 218
Students, college, 178
Stuttering, 158

minus e with minus hy in, 114
paroxysmal, 223
plus-minus e in, 95
plus-minus e with plus-minus hy
in, 116

Subjective symptom, 36
Sublimation, 135-36, 137, 148, 152,
157, 165, 260, 261, 262-63, 322
compromise character of, 259
drive toward, 323
“masculine,” 31^19
minus h with minus s in, 82
of oral need, 139-40
and plus k, 194

plus k with plus p in artistic, 252
through professional work, 259
Submission, plus h with minus s in,
84

Substitute activity, 231
Substitute satisfaction, 161
Suicide, 143, 184

Superego, 76, 111-12, 167-69, 234, 300
and minus hy, 103-4
and minus k, 198
and plus e, 89-90

and plus e with minus hy, 109, 110
and plus-minus e, 95
Symbolization, and sublimation, 261
“Sympathy,” 290
Symptom
catatonic, 187
defined, 36

Symptom-factors, subjective, 36
Symptom-formation, 181, 281, 283
compulsive type of, 185, 259-60
Synthetic function, of the ego, 194,

m

GENERAL INDEX

353

Szondi test

ability to interpret, 3
absolute number of choices, 26
administration, 8-12, 14-16, 120
ambivalent factor defined, 33
ambivalent reaction, 35-37
analysis of a series, 47-64
C, 118-165

case illustrations, 58-62, 289-94,

294-304» 3 o 8- i 4» 326-28

category of drive, 55-56
changes in factorial reactions, 38-

44

choice reactions, 26
d factor, 119-31

“degree of latency,” 52, 53, 54-55

drive-class, 55-57, 58

drive- formula, 51

effect of examiner’s presence, 11

and electro-shock therapy, 197

factors, 65-66, 67-87

field of application, 7

frequency of administration of,

14- 15

h factor, 67-^3
homosexuality, 67-69, 7S-73
instructions to subject, 9-10, 12,

15- 16

interpretation of, 104-5, 288-304,

307-24, 326-35

interpretation of loaded factors, 30
interpretation of open reaction,

27-28, 30

interpretative technic, 63-64
k factor, 186-209
lack of choices, 27
Latenzgrdsse, 52
Latenzproportionen, 55
loaded reaction, 27
m factor, 131-66
material, 8
methodology, 334-35
minus factor defined, 33
minus k, 198-202
mirror reaction, 43-44
names of factors, 12
and “need for causality,” 195
negative factor defined, 33
negative response, 34
open reaction, 27-28, 30, 34
original purpose, 1
P, 88-117
p factor, 170-186
paroxysmal vector, 88-117
personality, 7-8
plus factor defined, 33
plus-minus reactions, 36-37

Szondi — continued
positive factor defined, 33
positive response, 34
profile recording form, 12-14, 16
proportions of latencies, 55
and psychoanalytic concepts, 190
and psychoanlytic mechanisms, 34-
35

purpose of, 7
ratio values, 37-38
relative loading of two connected
factors, 46
repression, 34-35
root factor, 47, 50, 53

S, 67-87

Sch vectorial constellations, 209-85
schizoid profile, 45
self-administration, 10-11
sexual vector, 67-87
“short-range” changes, 15

T. sp. G., 53

Tendenzspajinung Grad., 49-50
Tendenzspannungsquotient, 51
Triebformel, 50
Triehklasse, 55-56
validation of) 23-24
vectors, 65-66

used in factorial association experi-
ment, 17

and verbal association, 23-24

T, sp. G., 49-50, 52, 53
Teachers, and plus hy, 101
Tenacity, anal, 299
Tendenzspannung Grad., 49-50
Tendenzspannungsquotient, 51
Tension, 114, 127, 143, 164, 187, 197,
i 98-99> 203

absent from p factor, 290
dynamic, 184
elimination of, 190
lacking in open d with plus m, 155
in minus k with plus p subject,
238, 239
motoric, 73

and open d reaction, 129
and open s, 79
in the p factor, 178
of the p need, 185
plus-minus d, 127
and plus-minus e with plus-minus
hy, 116

in plus-minus k with plus p sub-
ject, 246

and plus-minus 5, 78
reflected by plus-minus hy, 106
sexual, 80

GENERAL INDEX

354

Tension system. See Need-system
Test profile, 27

Test profile recording form, descrip-
tion of, 12-14
for incomplete series, 16
marking of, 12, 14
with ten profiles, 16, 47-64
Thinking
causal, 195
and creativeness, 277
logical, 194
preconscious in, 213
“prelogical,” 180
primitive animistic, 212-13
scientific, 213

Topological representation, of per-
sonality, 98, 170-71
Trauma
“basic,” 265
of birth, 269
“primary,” 297
of weaning, 296, 297
Traumatic experience
and object-attachment, 120-21
Traumatic experience, of sphincter
control training, 120, 121-22
“Traumatophyl,” 122
Triebformel. See Drive-formula
Triebklassej 55-56

Tri-equal drive class, 56, 59-60
Truancy, 224

Unconscious projection, 152, 159, 213,
217

Unhappiness, plus-minus p, 182

Valence character, 25
and degree of tension, 26
Validation, on basis of observable
behavior, 237
Vector, 45-46
mirror reaction in, 43-44

Weaning, trauma of, 296, 297
Women, minus h with plus s in, 86
Word-images, 177, 178
Wishes

latent homosexual, 242
latent-incestuous, 242
Writers

minus h with minus s in, 82

minus p in, 179

open k with minus p in, 214

open d with plus m in, 158

open k with plus p in, 270

open m, 145

plus m in, 137

plus s among, 75